Rugby union training and match-play are physiologically and psychologically very demanding and the execution of post-exercise recovery techniques in players‟ training regimes are therefore necessary to aid in the physiological and psychological restoration of athletes‟ training and performance abilities. However, despite numerous research findings with regard to the efficiency of especially cold water immersion (CWI), contrast water therapy (CWT) and passive recovery (PAR) on the physiological recovery of athletes post-exercise, only a limited number of researchers have examined the possible benefits of these recovery techniques on the psychological recovery of athletes. Consequently, the objectives of this study were firstly to determine the difference between the acute effects of CWI and PAR on the mood states (anger, confusion, depression, fatigue, tension and vigour) and the energy index of university-level rugby players post-exercise, and secondly to determine the difference between the acute effects of CWT and PAR on the mood states and the energy index of university-level rugby players post-exercise. Twenty-three under/21 university-level rugby players (age 20.1 ± 0.41) of a South African university club voluntarily participated in this study. The players were randomly divided into a control group (PAR) and an experimental group (CWI or CWT). Participants completed the Stellenbosch Mood Scale (STEMS) questionnaire over four time periods: during the morning (baseline); before completion of a high-intensity anaerobic training session (pre-anaerobic); after completion of a high-intensity anaerobic training session of 15 minutes (post-anaerobic) and after completion of a 20-minute recovery session (post-recovery). Blood lactate measurements were also taken 3 minutes after completion of the anaerobic session. To test the first objective, the experimental group completed 20 minutes of CWI, whereas the control group recovered passively for the same time period. For the purpose of the second objective, the experimental group completed 20 minutes of CWT, whereas the control group recovered passively for the same time period. Although the dependent t-test and effect size results of the first study showed that the experimental group (CWI) experienced no significant changes from the pre-anaerobic to post-recovery time periods for any of the STEMS subscale values or the energy index, the control group‟s (PAR) confusion, depression and tension subscale values decreased significantly (p < 0.05) from the pre-anaerobic to the post-recovery time periods. Despite these changes, the one-way between groups‟ analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) revealed no significant differences, except for the vigour subscale, which obtained a medium practical significant increase [Effect size (ES) = 0.65)] for the experimental compared to the control group when the pre-anaerobic and post-recovery changes in the STEMS subscale and energy index values between groups were compared. The dependent t-test and effect size results of the second study indicated that neither the experimental (CWT) nor the control group (PAR) experienced significant changes from pre-anaerobic to post-recovery time periods for any of the STEMS subscale or energy index values. However, the ANCOVA revealed that the experimental group showed a statistically significant higher value for the vigour subscale (p = 0.05) when compared to the control group. In addition, for vigour, the experimental group recorded a large practically significant higher value (ES = 0.92) for vigour as well as a large practically significant lower value for fatigue (ES = 0.88) compared to the control group. To the researchers‟ knowledge, this was the first study to compare the efficacy of CWI, CWT and PAR on the recovery of athletes‟ STEMS-derived mood states. Previous studies mainly focused on perceived fatigue, muscle soreness, Profile of Mood States- (POMS-) derived mood states and rate of perceived exertion (RPE) when investigating psychological recovery in athletes. However, despite the uniqueness of this study, results showed that when compared to PAR, CWI and CWT did not aid more in the acute psychological recovery of university-level rugby players‟ mood states. Vigour was the only mood state subscale for which both the CWI and CWT groups showed a practical or statistically significant higher value compared to the PAR group, while fatigue obtained a higher practical significant value for only CWT when compared to PAR. Therefore, although the study results support the use of CWI and CWT to alleviate vigour and fatigue post-exercise when compared to PAR, further research is required to gain understanding into the psychological mechanisms of both CWT and PAR, with an emphasis on knowledge and information in recovery of mood disturbances after exercise. / MSc (Sport Science), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

Thesis (M Sport Sc (Sport Science))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Post-exercise recovery has become an important area in research due to the high demands placed on competitive athletes. Different recovery strategies are used by athletes during competition and training. For the competitive athlete it is important to maintain performances during competition and also to enhance performances during training. However, if the athlete fails to recovery from daily exhaustive training and competition, inadequate recovery may lead to poor performances, burn-out, sickness and even injuries. There is very little evidence available on the possible performance recovery effects of the use of water immersion during multi days of intensive endurance training. Theoretically, water immersion should aid the overall recovery process without any additional energy cost involved as with active recovery. The objective of this investigation was to determine whether water immersion (cold water vs. neutral) has any effects on the post-exercise recovery rate of competitive cyclists during 3 days of intensive endurance training and whether recovery with water immersion is more effective than active recovery. Seventeen competitive cyclists (mean ± SD age: 27.6 ± 5.94 years, weight: 78.8 ± 6.67 kg, height: 180.5 ± 4.42 cm VO2max: 49.8 ± 4.13 L.min-1.kg-1, and PPO: 352.6 ± 35.94 Watts) completed 3 days of intensive endurance cycling sessions. Cyclists were randomly assigned to either a 20 minute ice bath (IB) (n = 6, 11 ± 0.9oC), neutral bath (NB) (n = 6, 30 ± 0.6oC), or active recovery (AR) (n = 5; 81 ± 1.74% of HRLT ) which were performed directly after the training sessions on Day 1 and 2. Dependent variables such as anaerobic performance, creatine kinase concentrations (CK), c-reactive protein concentrations (CRP), blood lactate concentrations, muscle soreness (VAS) and perceived fatigue (POMS), and limb circumferences were measured prior to the training sessions at Day 1, 2 and 3. In addition, changes in exercise performances over the last 2 days were also assessed. There were significant increases over the three days in plasma [CK] (P < 0.05) and [CRP] (P < 0.001) demonstrating that muscle damage and inflammation occurred during and after the training sessions. However, there were no treatment or interaction effects observed for any of the dependent variables for any of the recovery interventions (P > 0.05). Blood [La] was significantly reduced on Day 2 for the IB group in comparison to the NB group (P < 0.05). A strong tendency was observed for [CK] when the IB and NB groups were combined (WG), indicating that AR had a strong tendency to enhance the recovery of [CK] in comparison to the WG (P = 0.05). Also, there were no significant time or interaction effects observed in % changes in performances for the last two 100km TTs between Day 2 and 3 for any of the recovery interventions (P > 0.05). These findings suggest that neither cold water, nor neutral water therapy, have more beneficial effects on post-exercise recovery rates compared to active recovery. Importantly, however, is that the cyclists’ were able to maintain their performances over the three consecutive days, indicating that water therapy per se is not detrimental to endurance performance. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Na-oefening herstel het ‘n belangrike area van navorsing geword, aangesien die eise wat aan elite atlete gestel word buitengewoon hoog is. Vir die kompeterende fietsryer is dit baie belangrik om prestasie tydens kompetitisie asook tydens inoefening te handhaaf. Inteendeel, as die atleet nie daarin slaag om effektief te herstel na daaglikse oefening en kompetisie nie, mag dit lei tot swak prestasie, uitbranding, siekte en beserings. Tot hede is daar geen baie min bewyse beskikbaar oor die potensiële voordele van waterterapie vir die herstel van atlete, veral tydens meervoudige dae van intensiewe uithouvermoë inoefening. Teoreties behoort waterterapie die algehele herstelproses bevorder sonder dat enige addisionele energiekostes betrokke is, soos in die geval van aktiewe herstel. Die doel van die ondersoek was om vas te stel of waterterapie (koud teenoor neutraal) enige effekte het op die na-oefening hersteltempo van kompeterende fietsryers tydens 3 dae van intensiewe uithouvermo oefening en om te bepaal of waterterapie meer effektief is as aktiewe herstel. Sewentien kompeterende fietsryers (gemiddeld ± SD; ouderdom: 27.6 ± 5.94 jaar, gewig: 78.8 ± 6.67 kg, lengte: 180.5 ± 4.42 cm, VO2maks: 49.8 ± 4.13 L.min-1.kg-1, en Piek krag uitset: 352.6 ± 35.94 Watts) het 3 dae van intensiewe uithouvermoë inoefeing voltooi. Die fietryers was lukraak ingedeel in ‘n 20 minute Ysbadgroep (IB) (n = 6, 11 ± 0.9oC), neutrale bad groep (NB) (n = 6, 30 ± 0.6oC) en ‘n aktiewe herstelgroep (AR) (n = 5; 81 ± 1.74% van HRLT), Herstelsessies het op Dag 1 en 2 direk na die inoefeningsessies plaasgevind. Afhanklike veranderlikes soos funksionele kapasiteit, kreatienkinase konsentrasies (CK), c-reaktiewe proteïen konsentrasies (CRP), bloedlaktaat konsentrasie ([La]), spierseerheid en persepsie van vermoeienis (STEMS), en beenomtrekke was gemeet voor die inoefeningsessies op Dag 1, 2 en 3. Veranderinge in oefeningprestasie oor die laaste 2 dae was ook geassesseer. Daar was ‘n statistiese betekenisvolle toename in plasma [CK] (P < 0.05) en [CRP] (P < 0.001) oor die drie dae, wat daarop wys dat spierskade en inflammasie wel plaasgevind het. Daar was geen behandeling of interaksie effekte waarneembaar vir enige van die intervensies nie (P > 0.05). Bloed [La] was beduidend verlaag op Dag 2 vir die IB groep in vergelyking met die NB groep (P = 0.05). Die verlaging in plasma [CK] na AR het gegrens aan statisties betekenisvolle resultate (P = 0.05) in vergelyking met die waterterapie (IB en NB gekombineer). Daar was geen statisites beduidende tyd of interaksie effekte waargeneem in die % veranderinge in oefeningprestasie vir die laaste twee 100km tydtoetse tussen Dag 2 en 3 vir enige van die herstelstrategieë nie (P < 0.05) Die resultate wys dat waterterapie nie enige voordelige effekte op die na-inoefening herstel tempo het in vergelyking met aktiewe herstel nie. Dit is egter belangrik om daarop te let dat die fietsryers in staat was om hul oefeningprestasies te handhaaf oor die drie opeenvolgende dae, wat aandui dat waterterapie nie nadelig inwerk op uithouvermoë prestasie nie.

Title: The influence of water temperature on the rate of recovery during repeated isometric exercise. Objectives: The aim of this thesis is to assess the effect of water temperature on immersion of forearm to water for the sake of speeding up the recovery process during repeated isometric performance. Methods: Five male subjects from the students of FTVS (average age 22 ± 3 years) underwent three meaurements with repeated exercise to exhaustion with various kinds of rest periods. The exercise was represented by three series of intermittent isometric contraction of the finger flexors until exhaustion with 20 minutes rest period. The rest period was represented by the immersion of forearm into cold water (8řC; 15řC;) as well as by a passive rest. Sturation O2 of saturated hemoglobin (SmO2) was monitored by the spectrometer throughout the entire measurements at flexor digitorum profundus. Results: The reliability of measurements was rel=0,79 with standard deviation SD= 27,3s and standard measurement error SEM= 12,5s. The least effective method of recovery was passive recovery. Decrease in the time between the first, second and third contraction respectively was 35s, 34s respectively. Immersion in 15 ř C water under recovery phase led to improvement in the second contraction by 43s and by 27s in the...

Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death in the developed world. The majority of cardiovascular diseases are characterized by disorders of the arteries, predominantly caused by endothelial dysfunction and arterial stiffening. Passive heat stress results in elevations in core temperature (inducing heat shock protein expression) and changes in cardiovascular hemodynamics, such as increased cardiac output and shear stress, that are similar to exercise. Thus, repeated passive heat stress (“heat therapy”) may provide an alternative means of improving cardiovascular health, particularly for patients with limited exercise tolerance and/or capabilities. Therefore, the goal of this dissertation was to perform integrative studies to determine the effects of heat therapy on vascular function and the associated cellular pathways in young, sedentary humans. Twenty subjects were assigned to participate in 8 weeks (4-5x/week) of heat therapy (N=10; immersion in a 40.5°C bath sufficient to maintain rectal temperature ≥38.5°C for 60 min/session) or thermoneutral water immersion (N=10; sham). As discussed in Chapter V, we found that heat therapy improved numerous well-established biomarkers of conduit vessel/macrovascular function, including flow-mediated dilation (a measure of endothelial function), arterial stiffness, intima media thickness, and blood pressure. Heat therapy also improved microvascular function, as discussed in Chapter VI, measured as improved cutaneous thermal hyperemia and nitric oxide-dependent dilation (the difference between microdialysis sites receiving Lactated Ringer’s [control] and nitric oxide synthase inhibition). No changes were observed in any variables in sham subjects. In Chapter VII, we showed that both direct cellular heating and serum collected from human subjects following heat therapy improved nitric oxide bioavailability and angiogenesis in cultured endothelial cells, providing potential mechanisms by which heat therapy improves vascular function in vivo. Therefore, the studies described herein provide comprehensive evidence that passive heat therapy improves vascular health and insight into the mechanisms involved. Our data presented in Chapters IV-VII, combined with pilot data we conducted in spinal cord injured individuals (Chapter VIII), strongly indicate that passive heat therapy could be used as a simple and effective tool to improve cardiovascular health in a variety of patient populations. This dissertation includes published and unpublished co-authored material.

The use of deep-water immersion during labour and birth is commonplace in many countries including Australia, yet there has been little contemporary Australian data from which to form policies regarding its use during childbirth, or which have included women’s experiences using water immersion. The literature reviewed for this study was positive with regard to the effect of water immersion during childbirth and was associated with decreased rates of perineal trauma, low episiotomy rates, low rates of analgesic use, lower operative deliveries coupled with increased maternal satisfaction of the experience of childbirth when compared with births where water immersion was not involved. The purpose of this research was to investigate the influence of deep-water immersion upon maternal and neonatal outcomes and women's experiences of giving birth in Australia. This study used a mixed method in an attempt to fulfil this purpose: the first phase was a Quasi-experimental design and the second phase was based upon a Hermeneutic Phenomenological approach. Data were collected via a Random Chart Audit, from a random sample of fifty nulliparous women who used deepwater immersion during labour and childbirth and six women were selected to participate in a semi-structured interview. Data from each phase of this study revealed positive birth outcomes and these findings were supported by the literature. The women's stories were positive and comprised elements of four lifeworld themes. • Water’s Embrace • Warped Time • Naked but Clothed • The Shape of Water. Each of these themes encapsulated different aspects of the women's experiences, which when considered together, increased the understanding of the phenomenon of deep-water immersion upon the experience of giving birth.

In the last few years researchers have more and more focussed on the possible use of cryotherapy as an acute and long term recovery facilitating technique by sportsmen and women. Barnette (2006) did, however, state that research supporting cryotherapy as a recovery facilitating technique, is not convincing and that the majority of research show that it has a negative impact on the recovery of subjects after exercise. It is against this background that the aim of the study was firstly to critically analyse the available literature of the past fifteen years (1992-2007) with regard to the study subject; die nature of the cryotherapy technique that was used as well as the findings with regards to the effects of these types of techniques on a wide variety of physiological variables, physical and motor performance; secondly, to provide guidelines for the use of cryotherapy as a recovery facilitating technique and thirdly to determine the effect of cryotherapy on the acute recovery of University netball players' lower leg muscles in an isokinetic ankle exercise. Firstly, it was shown that ice water immersion and ice pack application are the most common techniques that are used in cryotherapy studies. The results in the majority of articles indicated that cryotherapy had a non-significant acute effect on isokinetic, eccentric and concentric peak torque as well as time to reach peak torque and the angle at which the peak torque was reached; isometric, maximal and sub-maximal strength and accuracy of strength execution; normalized, average vertical ground reaction force as well as time of reaching peak power and vertical jump height; baseball pitching accuracy, proprioception, ankle joint range of movement, positioning and speed during execution of a movement; blood lactate removal and blood flow speed as well as muscle soreness after completion of an exercise. With regard to the long term effects of cryotherapy research showed that isotonic hand grip strength and endurance, plasma adrenaline, non-adrenaline, dopamine, renine, aldosterone, heart rate and blood pressure after 6 weeks; respiratory gas exchange ratio, heart rate, muscle glycogen concentration, plasma lactate, glucose and free fatty acids after 8 weeks or brachial artery cross-section and vascular endothelial growth factor after 4 weeks of exercise and cryotherapy did not experience any significant changes between the cryotherapy and control group. Other physical, motor performance and physiological variables did not show a certain trend with regards to the way they were affected by cryotherapy. In some cases variables were affected significantly negatively while the opposite was true in other cases where variables were significantly positively influenced. With regard to the results of the study on the acute recovery of University netball players' lower leg muscles due to cryotherapy, it was found that the acute recovery of only four isokinetic variables were significantly influenced (p = 0.05) by cryotherapy, namely: left leg relative total dorsiflexion work, average peak dorsiflexion torque, right dorsiflexion and plantar flexion endurance. The acute recovery of the first mentioned strength endurance related variable was significantly negatively influenced by the cryotherapy. In contrast with this result the acute recovery of the three last mentioned isokinetic muscle relative peak torque and endurance related variables were significantly positively influenced by the cryotherapy. The overall conclusion that can therefore be drawn from the above-mentioned results show that the majority of isokinetic plantar- and dorsiflexion torque variables (12 out of 16, 75%) as well as other physical, motor performance and physiological variables experience no significant effect with regards to acute and long term recovery due to cryotherapy. The research did, however, show that the effectiveness of cryotherapy was influenced by the adiposity thickness, nature of the cryotherapy application, type of medium that was used for cryotherapy application and the length of time during which cryotherapy was applied. The recommendation for the use of cryotherapy as a recovery facilitating technique can be summarised as follows: the temperature of the cryotherapy medium that is used, must vary between 5°C and 10°C; the duration of cryotherapy between 15 and 20 minutes; the most general application area: for ice water immersion - immersed up until the level of the gluteal fold or crista ileac and the whole arm or forearm; for ice pack application - on the thigh, ankle and peripheral of the shoulder; the most common and effective ice pack application is direct on the skin surface by means of a bag filled with between 500 g and 1 500 g cubic formed ice. For long term use more that 2 consecutive days of cryotherapy application is recommended. / Thesis (M.A. (Human Movement Science))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2008.

Victims of exertional heat stroke (EHS) in whom treatment is delayed have higher rates of multi-organ failure and a greater number of fatalities. Death related to EHS is preventable, through immediate treatment via cold-water immersion (CWI). To date little is known about the influence of treatment delays on core cooling following EHS. Thus we sought to examine the effects of treatment delays on cardiovascular and thermal responses prior to, during, and following CWI treatment in individuals with exercise-induced hyperthermia. Our findings demonstrate that treatment delays resulted in a sustained level of hyperthermia and cardiovascular strain that significantly increased the time an individual is at risk to the potential lethal effects of EHS. Moreover, we report that cold water immersion treatment is powerful enough to overcome the adverse effects of treatment delays and rapidly reduce core temperatures while facilitating the re-establishment of blood pressure towards normal resting levels.

In the last few years researchers have more and more focussed on the possible use of cryotherapy as an acute and long term recovery facilitating technique by sportsmen and women. Barnette (2006) did, however, state that research supporting cryotherapy as a recovery facilitating technique, is not convincing and that the majority of research show that it has a negative impact on the recovery of subjects after exercise. It is against this background that the aim of the study was firstly to critically analyse the available literature of the past fifteen years (1992-2007) with regard to the study subject; die nature of the cryotherapy technique that was used as well as the findings with regards to the effects of these types of techniques on a wide variety of physiological variables, physical and motor performance; secondly, to provide guidelines for the use of cryotherapy as a recovery facilitating technique and thirdly to determine the effect of cryotherapy on the acute recovery of University netball players' lower leg muscles in an isokinetic ankle exercise. Firstly, it was shown that ice water immersion and ice pack application are the most common techniques that are used in cryotherapy studies. The results in the majority of articles indicated that cryotherapy had a non-significant acute effect on isokinetic, eccentric and concentric peak torque as well as time to reach peak torque and the angle at which the peak torque was reached; isometric, maximal and sub-maximal strength and accuracy of strength execution; normalized, average vertical ground reaction force as well as time of reaching peak power and vertical jump height; baseball pitching accuracy, proprioception, ankle joint range of movement, positioning and speed during execution of a movement; blood lactate removal and blood flow speed as well as muscle soreness after completion of an exercise. With regard to the long term effects of cryotherapy research showed that isotonic hand grip strength and endurance, plasma adrenaline, non-adrenaline, dopamine, renine, aldosterone, heart rate and blood pressure after 6 weeks; respiratory gas exchange ratio, heart rate, muscle glycogen concentration, plasma lactate, glucose and free fatty acids after 8 weeks or brachial artery cross-section and vascular endothelial growth factor after 4 weeks of exercise and cryotherapy did not experience any significant changes between the cryotherapy and control group. Other physical, motor performance and physiological variables did not show a certain trend with regards to the way they were affected by cryotherapy. In some cases variables were affected significantly negatively while the opposite was true in other cases where variables were significantly positively influenced. With regard to the results of the study on the acute recovery of University netball players' lower leg muscles due to cryotherapy, it was found that the acute recovery of only four isokinetic variables were significantly influenced (p = 0.05) by cryotherapy, namely: left leg relative total dorsiflexion work, average peak dorsiflexion torque, right dorsiflexion and plantar flexion endurance. The acute recovery of the first mentioned strength endurance related variable was significantly negatively influenced by the cryotherapy. In contrast with this result the acute recovery of the three last mentioned isokinetic muscle relative peak torque and endurance related variables were significantly positively influenced by the cryotherapy. The overall conclusion that can therefore be drawn from the above-mentioned results show that the majority of isokinetic plantar- and dorsiflexion torque variables (12 out of 16, 75%) as well as other physical, motor performance and physiological variables experience no significant effect with regards to acute and long term recovery due to cryotherapy. The research did, however, show that the effectiveness of cryotherapy was influenced by the adiposity thickness, nature of the cryotherapy application, type of medium that was used for cryotherapy application and the length of time during which cryotherapy was applied. The recommendation for the use of cryotherapy as a recovery facilitating technique can be summarised as follows: the temperature of the cryotherapy medium that is used, must vary between 5°C and 10°C; the duration of cryotherapy between 15 and 20 minutes; the most general application area: for ice water immersion - immersed up until the level of the gluteal fold or crista ileac and the whole arm or forearm; for ice pack application - on the thigh, ankle and peripheral of the shoulder; the most common and effective ice pack application is direct on the skin surface by means of a bag filled with between 500 g and 1 500 g cubic formed ice. For long term use more that 2 consecutive days of cryotherapy application is recommended. / Thesis (M.A. (Human Movement Science))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2008.

Title: Effect of water temperature during cold water immersion on repeated isometric performance Objectives: The aim of the study was to evaluate the effect of water temperature on recovery using repeated isometric performance of finger flexors to exhaustion Methods: The study was attended by a group of climbers consisting of 16 men (aged 30.8 ± 7.2 years) and 18 women (aged 26.7 ± 4.5 years). Participants came 3 times in the laboratory, where repeated intermittent isometric performance until exhaustion with different recovery strategy (passive recovery, immersion of forearm to 8ř C water - CWI 8, immersion of forearm to 15ř C water - CWI 15) were completed Results: The results were evaluated according time of contraction and force- time-integral (FTI). After passive recovery, the second time of contraction dropped by ↓ 9% and the third contraction by 20% compared to the first one. In response to cold water (CWI), after CWI 8 second time of contraction increased by ↑ 32% and CWI 15 by ↑ 36% compared to the first one. The third time of contraction was worse for CWI 8 by ↓ 4%, and CWI 15 was better by ↑ 26% compared to the first contraction. Conclusion: Cold water immersion is an effective recovery method between intermittent isometric performance compared to passive recovery strategy. CWI 15 is more...

Victims of exertional heat stroke (EHS) in whom treatment is delayed have higher rates of multi-organ failure and a greater number of fatalities. Death related to EHS is preventable, through immediate treatment via cold-water immersion (CWI). To date little is known about the influence of treatment delays on core cooling following EHS. Thus we sought to examine the effects of treatment delays on cardiovascular and thermal responses prior to, during, and following CWI treatment in individuals with exercise-induced hyperthermia. Our findings demonstrate that treatment delays resulted in a sustained level of hyperthermia and cardiovascular strain that significantly increased the time an individual is at risk to the potential lethal effects of EHS. Moreover, we report that cold water immersion treatment is powerful enough to overcome the adverse effects of treatment delays and rapidly reduce core temperatures while facilitating the re-establishment of blood pressure towards normal resting levels.