Inland waters including streams, rivers, reservoirs and lakes are regarded as a significant site of Organic Carbon (OC) cycling, and greenhouse gas production. As a result, there has been significant recent interest in the rates and fate of fluvial carbon exported from organic soils, such as peatlands. Additionally, peatlands can be subject to substantial degradation resulting in high rates of fluvial OC export, and this has led to efforts to repair degraded peatlands through restoration programmes. As a consequence, the study of degraded areas is useful to quantify the upper values of carbon release, understand processes of transformation, and evaluate the success of restoration programmes. Importantly peatlands are also collection areas for drinking water, which has implications for treatment, and requires better understanding of carbon cycling upstream of treatment works, in headwater rivers, reservoirs and pipes. UK upland blanket peat catchments are a key location in which to consider global questions surrounding fluvial carbon export and transformations, as they are highly degraded, provide a source of drinking water supply, and are currently undergoing pioneering methods of landscape scale restoration. This thesis considers Kinder Scout, an area of highly degraded and gullied blanket peatland in the South Pennines, UK. Using analysis of water samples collected over several years in the Kinder reservoir catchment and plateau, this thesis presents three novel contributions to global questions concerning OC cycling and peatlands. Firstly it provides (to date), the only carbon budget for a reservoir in a peat dominated catchment with high Particulate Organic Carbon (POC) export, which demonstrates that reservoirs may be net sources of Dissolved Organic Carbon (DOC), with the implication that POC-DOC interactions are important OC transformation mechanism in degraded systems. Secondly through use of a unique integrated combination of methods, it considers changes in carbon flux and composition in both river, lake and pipe locations, providing detailed understanding of the relative roles of river reaches, reservoirs and supply pipes, in controlling fluvial carbon cycling in peatland systems, and upstream of water treatment works. An important implication here, is that rate and direction of change in water treatability varies through a catchment. Finally, it includes results from the first widespread monitoring of the catchment scale effects of a new method of peatland revegetation. This restoration approach is being applied at landscape scale and the findings here, are that despite fears to the contrary, it does not lead to short term increases in fluvial carbon loss, which is an important piece of evidence supporting practical conservation approaches in these systems. To further enhance this research, a combination of field and laboratory investigations into carbon transformation processes, and ongoing restoration mentoring should be undertaken.

Ion exchange reactions between Upsalite, a mesoporous magnesium carbonate, and metal ions of cadmium, lead and nickel have been studied to evaluate the capacities of Upsalite as a water treatment agent. Uptake capacity and reaction kinetics have been evaluated using a batch experiment and atomic absorption spectroscopy. Post reaction materials from the reaction between Upsalite and each of the three metal ions have been investigated with XRD, SEM and TGA in order to determine what species have been formed during the ion exchange.   The maximum uptake capacity of Upsalite was found to be 990 mg/g for cadmium ions and 470 mg/g for nickel ions. The evaluation of the uptake capacity of lead ions in Upsalite was not conclusive but the results indicate a maximum uptake capacity of at least 4400 mg/g. The uptake capacity for lead ions is to high be explained by ion exchange alone and is proposed to be from both ion exchange and adsorption. The reaction between Upsalite and cadmium ions resulted in the formation of crystalline CdCO3 (Otavite) with some parts of MgCO3 and crystalline MgO remaining from the original material. Post reaction materials from the reaction between nickel ions and Upsalite were found to be amorphous and contained both MgCO3 and crystalline MgO. The reaction between Upsalite and lead ions resulted in crystalline hydrocerussite (Pb3(CO3)2(OH)2).

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / The aim of this study was to design and build an electrohydraulic discharge reactor in such a way that the synthetic immobilized TiO2 nanophotocatalytic components could be integrated, for the production of active species such as OH radicals, ozone and hydrogen peroxide, as a cocktail to clean drinking water without the addition of chemicals. The research objectives include: • To design and construct the different AOP prototypes based on various electrode configurations and compare their operation. • To optimize the discharge parameters and conditions of the best AOP system. • To determine the effectiveness of the best prototype for the degradation of methylene blue as model pollutant. • To compare the designed AOP system with the Sodis method for the disinfection of contaminated river water. • To prepare supported TiO2 nanoparticles via electro spinning, followed by combustion and study the effect on the morphology of TiO2 nanoparticles. • To determine the stability and robustness of composite nano-crystalline TiO2 photocatalysts by sonication • To determine the enhanced effect of combining the composite TiO2 in the AOP system on degradation of methylene blue under the same conditions. • To detect the active species promoting disinfection.

Water supply systems aim, among other objectives, to protect public health by reducing the concentration of, and potentially eliminating, microorganisms pathogenic to human beings. Yet, because water supply systems are engineered systems facing variable conditions, such as raw water quality or treatment process performance, the quality of the drinking water produced also exhibits variability. The reliability of a treatment system is defined in this context as the probability of producing drinking water that complies with existing microbial quality standards. This thesis examines the concept of reliability for two physicochemical treatment technologies, conventional rapid granular filtration and ultrafiltration, used to remove the protozoan pathogen Cryptosporidium parvum from drinking water. First, fault tree analysis is used as a method of identifying technical hazards related to the operation of these two technologies and to propose ways of minimizing the probability of failure of the systems. This method is used to compile operators’ knowledge into a single logical diagram and allows the identification of important processes which require efficient monitoring and maintenance practices. Second, an existing quantitative microbial risk assessment model is extended to be used in a reliability analysis. The extended model is used to quantify the reliability of the ultrafiltration system, for which performance is based on full-scale operational data, and to compare it with the reliability of rapid granular filtration systems, for which performance is based on previously published data. This method allows for a sound comparison of the reliability of the two technologies. Several issues remain to be addressed regarding the approaches used to quantify the different input variables of the model. The approaches proposed herein can be applied to other water treatment technologies, to aid in prioritizing interventions to improve system reliability at the operational level, and to determine the data needs for further refinements of the estimates of important variables. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Civil Engineering, Department of / Graduate

Ce travail de thèse a permis le développement d'un procédé de traitement de l'eau par couplage plasma/catalyse. Les traitements plasma ont été réalisés dans deux réacteurs différents : un réacteur pointe/plan et un réacteur dynamique. Ces deux réacteurs autorisent un contrôle de l'atmosphère gazeuse du traitement. La faisabilité de la dégradation d'acide acétique a été prouvée. Certains paramètres de traitement en réacteur pointe/plan (gaz de traitement, du débit gazeux et de la fréquence de la décharge) et dynamique (débit de recirculation de phase liquide, concentration du polluant et puissance injectée) ont été étudiés.Une modélisation du procédé en utilisant les logiciels Comsol Multiphysics et Scilab a été menée. Grâce à elle, la manière dont les espèces actives (essentiellement les radicaux hydroxyles) sont apportées à la solution a été mise en évidence.Une poudre de catalyseur de Co3O4 a été étudiée dans le but de coupler le traitement plasma avec un traitement catalytique. Pour cela, des manipulations d'ozonation catalytique ont été entreprises. Elles ont mis en exergue l'efficacité du catalyseur pour la décomposition de polluants.Finalement, le couplage plasma/catalyse a présenté des résultats encourageants, puisqu'une amélioration de la décomposition des polluants a été observée.Les points d'amélioration peuvent consister à optimiser la quantité et la forme des électrodes haute tension utilisées (électrodes en parallèle, de géométrie plane, etc.). Le dépôt de catalyseur en couche mince sur l'électrode de masse par la technique PECVD (Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition) devra être réalisé. / This work enabled the development of a method of water treatment by plasma/catalysis coupling.The plasma treatments were carried out in two different reactors: a point/plane reactor and a dynamic reactor.Both reactors allow to control the gas atmosphere of the treatment. The feasibility of the degradation of aceticacid has been proven. Some processing parameters in the point/plane reactor (treatment gas, gas flow rate andfrequency of discharge) and the dynamic reactor (liquid phase flow, concentration of the pollutant and injectedpower) were studied.A modeling of the process using Comsol Multiphysics and Scilab softwares was conducted. It was possible toobserve the importance of the way active species (mainly hydroxyl radicals) are brought to the solution.A Co3O4 powder catalyst was studied in order to couple the plasma treatment with a catalytic treatment. Thus,manipulations of catalytic ozonation were conducted. They highlighted the efficiency of the catalyst for thedecomposition of pollutants.Finally, the plasma/catalysis coupling produced promising results, since it improved the decomposition ofpollutants.Possible improvements of the process could be to maximize the amount of high voltage electrodes and toredesign their shape (electrodes in parallel, plane geometry, etc.). Depositing a thin layer of catalyst on thegrounded electrode by PECVD (Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition) technique has to be performed.

Since the demand for fresh potable water increases every year, it is important to have future water demand strategies in place. People expect a secure, high quality, water supply and the water supply industry is governed by increasingly stringent water quality guidelines and legislation. The Cape Metropolitan Area (CMA) faces the challenge of an increasing demand for fresh water in excess of the existing supply. The City is responsible for the planning and development of the local water supply resources as well as managing the water demand in the CMA and to supplement the water supply to the City of Cape Town from local sources. The ‘Voëlvlei Augmentation Scheme’ was identified as one of the options to augment the water supply to the CMA. This option would involve pumping winter water from the Berg River via a pipeline to the Voëlvlei water treatment plant (WTP). The Voëlvlei WTP was designed to treat water from the adjacent Voëlvlei Dam. This Voëlvlei WTP raw water has a higher turbidity and a lower colour in comparison to the Berg River water. The plant’s treatment conditions were optimized to remove this high turbidity. The Voëlvlei WTP raw water also contains a relatively high manganese concentration and coagulation therefore occurs at a high pH with ferric sulphate to remove the manganese during the initial stages of the water treatment process. As the quality of the Berg River water is different to that of the Voëlvlei WTP raw water, it might not be possible to treat the Berg River water at the Voëlvlei WTP using the plants current treatment parameters. The Berg River water could possibly be blended with the Voëlvlei WTP raw water before treatment at the WTP. If the Berg River water, or its blends, could not be treated at the Voëlvlei WTP using the plants current treatment parameters, then this water would have to be pre-treated before entering the plant. Various forms of pre-treatment could be used, e.g., conventional water treatment using either aluminium or ferric sulphate as primary coagulants or ion-exchange water treatment using the MIEX® resin or even a combination of both. The main objective of this study was to determine a treatment strategy for the Berg River water at the Voëlvlei WTP. It is therefore important to determine if the Berg River water could be treated at the Voëlvlei WTP using the current treatment regime. Also, if the Berg River water should be blended with the Voëlvlei WTP raw water, this study would determine which blend would be the most suited for treatment at the Voëlvlei WTP. If the Berg River water could not be treated directly at the Voëlvlei WTP, a pre-treatment strategy for this water should be determined. The cost of pretreatment of the Berg River water as compared to the cost of direct treatment at the Voëlvlei WTP should also be evaluated. In order to determine the best treatment strategy for the Berg River water at the Voëlvlei WTP, it was important to sample the Berg River water and the Voelvlei WTP raw water at regular intervals over a period of at least a year to determine its quality and the impact of seasonal changes. Various laboratory physical (e.g., turbidity) and chemical (e.g., total alkalinity) analyses were conducted on the Berg River water and Voëlvlei WTP raw water to determine its quality. The experimental procedure focused mainly on the Jar test which simulates the coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes at the Voëlvlei WTP. Jar tests were conducted on the Berg River water and the Voëlvlei WTP raw water using ferric sulphate and aluminium sulphate as coagulants to determine the optimum pH and optimum coagulant dosage concentration for each coagulant. The Berg River water was also blended with the Voëlvlei WTP raw water in three different proportions and Jar tests were conducted on these blends using ferric sulphate as the coagulant at a coagulation pH of 5.0 and a Fe3+ dosage of 5.0 mg/L. Jar tests were also conducted on these blends with the Voëlvlei WTP treatment parameters using ferric sulphate as the coagulant at a coagulation pH of 9.2 and a Fe3+ dosage of 3.5 mg/L. The analytical results showed a similar pattern for the characterization of the Berg River water and the Voëlvlei WTP raw water. The iron and aluminium concentrations were consistently low during the summer months with significant increases during the winter months. There were no significant seasonal impact on the UV absorbance and colour. The Jar test results of the Voëlvlei WTP raw water and the Berg River water with ferric sulphate as the coagulant showed an optimum Fe3+dosage of 3.0 to 4.0 mg/L and 4.0 to 6.0 mg/L, respectively, with an optimum coagulation pH range of 6.6 to 9.5 and 5.0 to 10.0, respectively. The Jar test results of the Voëlvlei WTP raw water and the Berg River water with aluminium sulphate as the coagulant showed an optimum Al3+ dosage of 2.5 to 3.0 mg/L and 4.0 to 5.0 mg/L, respectively, with an optimum coagulation pH of 6.0 to 7.0 and 6.0, respectively. The Jar test results obtained for all 3 blends were similar to each other. The UV absorbance of the treated water was consistently below the operational specification, while the turbidities were inconsistent and did not always comply with the SANS 241:2006 Specification (Class I) for drinking water. The iron of the treated water was also consistently above the specified value of <0.200 mg/L. The Jar tests conducted on all 3 blends, with the Voëlvlei WTP treatment parameters, also yielded similar results. The UV absorbance of the treated water was consistently above the maximum operational specification of 0.100, while the turbidities were also consistently above the SANS 241:2006 Specification of <1 NTU. Both ferric sulphate and aluminium sulphate can be used as coagulants to treat the Berg River water, although ferric sulphate would be the preferred choice due to its wide coagulation pH range and also because of differences in their health effects. The Voëlvlei WTP coagulates at a pH of 9.2 to remove turbidity and any manganese that might be present in the raw water. The manganese would not be removed at the low coagulation pH of aluminium sulphate. The specified treatment parameters, including the Voëlvlei WTP treatment parameters, used in treating the raw water blends were not effective and further investigation and research is necessary to determine its optimum treatment parameters. This study concluded that the Berg River water cannot be effectively treated at the Voëlvlei WTP using the plants treatment parameters, even if it is blended with the Voëlvlei WTP raw water. Therefore, the best treatment strategy for the Berg River water at the Voëlvlei WTP would be pre-treatment of the water before entering the Voëlvlei WTP. Although there are various ways of pre-treating the Berg River water, this study has identified the following possible pre-treatment strategies:<ul><li>pre-treatment with ferric sulphate and lime</li><li> pre-treatment with ferric sulphate and lime in conjunction with MIEX® resin</li><li> pre-treatment with MIEX® resin only</li></ul> Further research and investigation would be necessary to determine the best pretreatment strategy in terms of cost and efficiency. The pre-treated Berg River water would have to pass through the Voëlvlei WTP treatment process (i.e. high coagulation pH) to remove any manganese that might be present in the water. It is recommended that more samples should be taken at various points along the Berg River upstream of the Voëlvlei WTP over a longer period of time to compare the quality of water at these points in the river and also to monitor the effect of various run-off sites. Further research and investigation is necessary to determine the optimum treatment parameters for the Berg River water when blended with the Voëlvlei WTP raw water. Other blending ratios, different to those used in this study, should also be investigated. A more in-depth investigation is also necessary to determine the actual capital and operational costs for the pre-treatment of the Berg River water. / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2011. / Chemical Engineering / unrestricted

Nos países em desenvolvimento, como o Brasil, os resíduos gerados nos decantadores e filtros das estações de tratamento de água são geralmente dispostos nos mesmos rios e córregos que suprem água para o tratamento. Outro problema ambiental está relacionado à disposição irregular dos resíduos de madeira. As indústrias de base florestal geram grande quantidade deste resíduo desde a exploração florestal até a manufatura do produto final. Este trabalho avalia a possibilidade de combinar estes dois resíduos e produzir um compósito leve para uso como agregado graúdo em concreto. O lodo seco e moído foi misturado com água e serragem e moldado manualmente na forma de pelotas redondas de 14±02 mm. A relação em massa da serragem, lodo e água foi 1:6:4,5. Depois de seco, os grãos do compósito foram imersos em óleo de linhaça cozido por 1 min. Este tempo foi considerado o menor período de imersão necessário para estabilizar a resistência mecânica, reduzir a absorção de água e evitar a quebra dos grãos durante a preparação e aplicação do concreto. Depois que o óleo foi aplicado, os grãos foram secos à temperatura ambiente. A massa unitária do compósito no estado seco e solto foi 672 kg/m3. A serragem de madeira usada no desenvolvimento e produção do compósito foi do gênero Pinnus. Esta madeira apresentou diâmetro médio dos poros de 17,8 m e diâmetro do lúmen de 23 m. A análise granulométrica do lodo mostrou que 45% dos grãos são menores que 17 m. Os grãos do lodo preencheram os poros da madeira formando um material compósito. O concreto contendo o compósito foi preparado com a total substituição da pedra britada. A relação em massa do cimento:areia:compósito:água foi 1:2,5:0,67:0,6 Nenhum aditivo complementar foi usado para evitar que os resultados fossem associados ao uso destes materiais. O concreto produzido com o compósito apresentou massa específica aparente de 1.848 kg/m3, resistência à compressão axial de 11,1 MPa, resistência à tração de 1,2 MPa, absorção de água de 8,7%, caracterizando-se como um concreto leve não estrutural. O concreto produzido com o compósito apresentou calor específico de 839 J/kg.K, difusividade térmica de 1,220.10-6 m2/s e condutividade térmica de 1,894 W/m.K. As propriedades térmicas do concreto produzido com o compósito sugerem a sua aplicação em elementos não estruturais de peso leve para vedação e isolação térmica. O resíduo sólido do concreto produzido com o compósito foi classificado segundo a NBR 10004:2004 como resíduo sólido não perigoso e não inerte. Uma comparação da concentração de alumínio no lodo e no extrato solubilizado do concreto contendo o compósito revelou uma significante redução na redução do metal, o que confirma a eco-eficiência do compósito para uso em concreto. A concentração de alumínio encontrada no extrato solubilizado do concreto com compósito foi 19,96 mg/L, enquanto no lodo de tratamento de água foi apresentada uma concentração de alumínio de 11.100 mg/L. É possível produzir um compósito com estes resíduos e diminuir a degradação ambiental. / In developing countries such as Brazil, the wastes generated in the decanters and filters of water treatment plants are usually discharged into the same rivers and streams that supply water for treatment. Another environmental problem is related to unregulated discard of wood wastes. The lumber and wood products industry generates large quantities of this waste, from logging to the manufacture of the end product. This study evaluates the possibility of combining these two wastes and produces a lightweight composite for use as aggregate in concrete. The dried and ground sludge was mixed with water and sawdust and molded by hand into rounded pellets with a diameter of 14±02 mm. The mass ratio of sawdust, sludge and water was 1:6:4,5. After drying, the composite grains were immersed in boiled linseed oil for 1 min. This time was considered the shortest period of immersion required to stabilize the mechanical strength, reduce water absorption and prevent the grains from crumbling during the preparation and application of the concrete. After the oil was applied, the grains were dried at room temperature. The unitary mass of the composite in the dry and loose state was 672 kg/m3. The softwood sawdust used for the development and production of the composite was from Pinnus species. This wood presented a median pore diameter of 17,8 µm and a lumen diameter of 23 µm. Granulometric analysis of the sludge showed that 45% of the grains are smaller than 17 µm. The sludge grains filled the wood pores forming a composite material. The concrete containing the composite was prepared with the total substitution of crushed stone. The mass ratio of cement:sand:composite:water was 1:2,5:0,67:0,60. No complementary additives were used in order to avoid having the results associated with such materials. The concrete produced with composite presented an apparent specific mass of 1.848 kg/m3, an axial compressive strength of 11,1 MPa, a tensile strength of 1,2 MPa and a water absorption of 8,7%, characterizing it as a lightweight nonstructural concrete. The concrete produced with the composite presented a specific heat of 839 J/kg.K, a thermal diffusivity of 1,220.10-6 m2/s and a thermal conductivity of 1,894 W/m.K. The thermal properties obtained suggest the applicability of the concrete produced with the composite in lightweight nonstructural elements for sealing and thermal insulation. The solid waste of the concrete produced with composite was classified, according to the Brazilian ABNT NBR 10004:2004 standard, as non-harmful and non-inert solid wastes. A comparison of the concentration of aluminum in the sludge and the concentration of aluminum in the solubilized extract of the concrete containing the composite revealed a significant reduction in the concentration of the metal, which confirms the eco-efficiency of the composite for use in concrete. The concentration of aluminum in the solubilized extract of the concrete with composite was found to be 19,96 mg/L, while the water treatment sludge was showed an aluminum concentration of 11.100 mg/L. Its possible produce a composite with these wastes and reduce environmental degradation.

abstract: Engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) are added to numerous consumer products to enhance their effectiveness, whether it be for environmental remediation, mechanical properties, or as dietary supplements. Uses of ENMs include adding to enhance products, carbon for strength or dielectric properties, silver for antimicrobial properties, zinc oxide for UV sun-blocking properties, titanium dioxide for photocatalysis, or silica for desiccant properties. However, concerns arise from ENM functional properties that can impact the environment and a lack of regulation regarding ENMs leads to potential public exposure to ENMs and results in ill-informed public or manufacturer perceptions of ENMs. My dissertation evaluates the environmental, human health, and societal impacts of using ENMs, with a focus on ionic silver and nanosilver, in consumer and industrial products. Reproducible experiments served as functional assays to assess ENM distributions among various environmental matrices. Functional assay results were visualized using radar plots and aid in a framework to estimate likely ENM disposition in the environment. To assess beneficial uses of ENMs, bromide ion removal from drinking waters to limit disinfection by-product formation was studied. Silver-enabled graphene oxide materials were capable of removing bromide from water, and exhibited less competition from background solutes (e.g. natural organic matter) when compared against solely ionic silver addition to water for bromide removal. To assess complex interactions of ENMs with the microbiome, batch experiments were performed using fecal samples spiked with ionic silver or commercial dietary silver nanoparticles. Dietary nanosilver and ionic silver exposures to the fecal microbiome for 24 hours reduce short chain fatty acid (SCFA) production and changes the relative abundance of the microbiota. To understand the social perceptions of ENMS, statistically rigorous surveys were conducted to assess related perceptions related to the use of ENMs in drinking water treatment devices the general public and, separately, industrial manufacturers. These stakeholders are influenced by costs and efficiency of the technologies, consumer concerns of the safety of technologies, and environmental health and safety of the technologies. This dissertation represents novel research that took an interdisciplinary approach, spanning from wet-lab engineering bench scale testing to social science survey assessments to better understand the environmental, human health, and societal impacts of using ENMs such as nanosilver and ionic silver in industrial processes and consumer products. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Civil, Environmental and Sustainable Engineering 2020

Landfills are potential sources for PFASs and treatment techniques for landfill leachate are urgently needed. Foam fractionation is an aeration technique which utilizes the tendency of PFASs to escape the liquid phase and build foam. The foam is harvested and with it the contamination. Landfill leachate from Hovgården, Uppsala Sweden contained PFASs of higher concentration than desired and investigations into whether foam fractionation could reduce PFASs amounts were initiated. Landfill leachate containing sum PFASs of 5500 ng/L on average were aerated in two different aeration foam collection pilot set-ups for the research. The pilot set-ups were divided into two models: a batch pilot and a continuous pilot. The batch pilot was run for 60 minutes testing parameters such as column volume, air flow rate, dilution and using additives as NaCl, FeCl3 and dish soap. The continuous pilot used contact times of 5, 10 and 20 minutes with constant air flow rate and column volume and no additives. All batch experiments showed reduced concentrations of PFASs, from 62 up to 91%, with an average sum PFASs removal efficiency of 77%. Air flow rates of 4 and 6 L/min were more effective than 2 L/min to reduce the amount of PFASs. Smaller volumes got higher removal efficiency. The dilution experiments showed mixed and somewhat contradictory results, where the nondiluted experiment had removal efficiency of sum PFASs of average 77% while the 50% diluted had an average sum PFASs removal efficiency of 84%. The experiment with the greatest dilution (75%) had the lowest average sum PFASs removal efficiency as suspected, at 68%. Regarding additives, the experiments with added 0.155 and 0.313% NaCl in the leachate were most effective at removing PFASs. The dish soap and FeCl3 additives also contributed to higher PFASs reduction. The experiment with the addition of dish soap had an average sum PFASs removal efficiency of 88% compared to 77% without additives, and the highest concentration of FeCl3 (0,09% of the leachate) had an average sum PFASs removal efficiency of 85%. All continuous experiments showed reduced reduced PFASs concentrations with sum PFASs removal efficiencies ranging from 72 up to 94%, with an average of 86%. The majority of the PFASs were reduced within the first time steps for all experiments, but for the last amount to be removed the contact time needed to be longer. The column contact time of 20 min had the highest average sum PFASs removal efficiency. The conclusion is that PFASs are reduced during the treatment in the pilots and that the reduction is dependent on the chain length and functional groups of the substances, and increased with additives and increased air flow rate. The volume treated and the concentration of raw water also influenced the removal efficiency.

MESHWR / Department of Hydrology and Water Resources / Water borne diseases due to inadequate and unsafe drinking water is a global challenge that has led to a significant number of deaths and illnesses reported annually. These diseases are prevalent in less-developed countries, especially in rural areas where there is shortage of basic infrastructure and inadequate funds for piped water systems in individual households. Community members are forced to resort to collecting water from communal water points and later storing the water in containers for daily use. Recontamination of microbiologically safe drinking water during and after collection from the water source has been recognised as a problem; hence treating water at household level is one way to provide potable water for affected communities. The microbiological quality of household water may be improved by using point-of-use treatment technologies such as chemical disinfection, solar disinfection and ceramic water filters. Some of these technologies are expensive, less effective and difficult to implement in rural communities. This research thus focused on ceramic water filters and finding an appropriate method for silver application so as to produce filters that are effective in both the provision of clean drinking water and the release of silver levels that are safe for human consumption. An assessment of the efficiency of ceramic water filters made with silver nitrate as point-of -use water treatment device in Dertig Village, North West Province, South Africa was carried out. During production of filters made with silver nitrate, the filters undergo firing in an electric kiln and ionic silver is reduced to metallic nanopatches dispersed throughout the porous ceramic media. Both filters made with silver nitrate and conventional silver nanoparticles impregnated ceramic water filters were manufactured at the PureMadi Dertig Ceramic Filter Facility, South Africa. Resulting filters were evaluated and quantified for total coliform and E. coli removal as well as silver concentration in the effluent. Ceramic water filters made with silver nitrate had a high removal efficiency for total coliforms (94.7%) and E. coli (99.3%). A comparison of the performance of filters made with silver nitrate and silver nanoparticles in the provision of potable water was carried out and results showed that the different filters had similar levels of total coliform and E. coli removal, although the silver nitrate filters produced the highest average removal of 97.23% while silver nanoparticles filters produced the lowest average removal of 85.43%. Reasonable silver levels were obtained in effluent from all filters. Average effluent silver levels were 0.07±0.04mg/L, 0.6±1.10 mg/L and 0.8±1.0mg/L for 1 g, 2 g and silver nanoparticle filters, respectively (below the EPA and WHO standard of 100 mg/L). Because silver nitrate filters resulted in the lowest effluent silver concentrations, this could potentially increase the effective life span of the filter. A cost analysis of the process proved that it was cheaper to produce ceramic water filters using silver nitrate as the chemical can be purchased locally and also eliminates labour related costs. Thus, filters made using silver nitrate could potentially improve performance, reduce production costs, and increase safety of production for workers. The results obtained from this study will be applied to improve the ceramic filtration technology as point-of-use water treatment device in an effort to reduce health problems associated with microbial contamination of water stored at household level. / NRF