Submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Engineering, Department of Industrial Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa, 2017. / Access to clean and adequate water is a universal and basic human right that feeds into the 6th of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). This goal aims at ensuring availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all. Clean water is referred to as potable water, which is safe for human consumption and offer low risk of immediate or long term harm. Raw water undergoes rigorous processing which consists of coagulation, sedimentation, filtration, disinfection and storage, to produce potable water. Each module or stage consumes chemicals and energy resources and thus incurs costs. To achieve the aim of the study, which was to synthesize an optimised potable water treatment network and a water usage analysis model, the Umzinto Water Treatment Plant (UWTP) and its distribution system was used as the study area. This treatment plant is located within Umdoni, a local municipality of the Ugu District Municipality in KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa. This study’s objectives were fourfold and the first objective was to identify and quantify key raw water quality parameters affecting treatment at the UWTP. The second objective was to design a genetic algorithm for the potable water treatment process control. The third objective was to evaluate the Umzinto Water Distribution System’s Non-Revenue Water (NRW) while the fourth objective was to develop a model for water usage analysis. For the first objective, data for water quality parameters for the water treatment from July 2006 to June 2013 were statistically analysed. This data were collected from the UWTP’s historical records. To improve the data’s integrity it was pre-processed using cubic hermite interpolation. After the pre-processing trend lines and box plots were used to determine the parameters’ significance compared to the standard values stipulated in the South African National Standard (SANS 241). The trend lines were used to analyse the frequency of observations that were higher than the standard values according to SANS 241. The box plots were used to determine the minimum, median, maximum and mean of the data sets. The mean values for each parameter were compared to the SANS 241 value to determine their significance. The raw water quality parameters were then correlated to the chemical dosages for lime, polymer, potassium permanganate and chlorine. The key parameters selected from the correlation analysis were algal count, manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), Escherichia coli, total coliforms, colour, odour, conductivity, turbidity, suspended solids (SS), pH, temperature, total organic carbon (TOC,) and Hardness. A number of methods can be used to achieve such optimisation, including artificial neural networks, dynamic programming, linear and non-linear programming, and this study utilised a genetic algorithm as an optimisation tool to achieve the second objective of optimising water treatment at the UWTP. For the model development, data from the correlations obtained for objective 1 were used. The model was aimed at reducing the cost of chemical dosage and four chemical dosage prediction models were developed using genetic algorithms and these were then used to produce a combined chemical dosage cost prediction model. The programming interface utilised for these models was Matlab. In developing these models, the data were first pre-processed to remove outliers and fill in the blanks using a Microsoft Excel Add-in that was developed for this particular purpose. The next step involved a curve fitting exercise in Microsoft Excel 2013. Matlab was then used to code the genetic algorithm that combined and optimised the solutions obtained from the curve fittings. The results showed that genetic algorithms can be reliably used to predict the chemical dosages and hence reduce water treatment costs. After treatment, water is pumped into the distribution system for consumption. It is therefore important to ensure that all the pumped out treated water reaches the consumer. The third objective therefore assessed the NRW for the Umzinto Water Distribution System for the period between July 2013 and June 2014. The data used for this objective was provided by the Ugu District Municipality. The method used combined the top-down approach and the component-based approach. This combined approach was modified to enable the calculation of all the components that are required in a standard South African Water Balance. The results showed that the distribution system had a high value of NRW, which was 27.9% of the System Input Volume. The major component of NRW was Real Losses, that is, losses that can be mitigated by improving maintenance. The fourth objective was to develop a model for water usage analysis that would reduce the time taken to evaluate NRW and also improve the analysis of the NRW components using Microsoft Visual Basics 2012 and Microsoft SQL Server 2012 development interfaces. The Visual Basics enabled the development of a graphic user interface that was user-friendly and minimised the time taken to learn the software. The software platform developed was able to import the data required to construct a standard International Water Asssociation (IWA) Water Balance, calculate all the components of NRW, store historical data for the water distribution systems and report on a rolling year basis. A model for water usage analysis was developed and made available for usage by practitioners in Ugu District. The model was developed for the specific study area and further studies would be required in order to validate it in a different setting. The results obtained for the first objective led to the conclusion that, there was very high pollution emanating from communities and activities close to the raw water sources, especially the EJ Smith Dam. The results from the first objective were also used to determine parameters for the models developed in the second objective. From objective two it was concluded that genetic algorithms can be reliably used to predict chemical dosages and hence reduce water treatment costs. The third objective’s results showed that 27.9% of treated water pumped into the distribution system is NRW. Which is a concern because 65% of this are real losses which have maintenance related problems. The fourth objective’s results showed the practicality of designing model that could be used determine all the important components of NRW that would take time to evaluate manually. It would also store historical data for the water distribution system and report on a rolling year basis. Implementation of this software would help minimise the errors associated with manual calculation of NRW and improve the availability of data for research and analysis. From the research findings, it is recommended that the treatment plant should change the way it is dosing chemicals in the balancing tank. The method currently being used is prone to error. The analysis of NRW showed that Real Losses were a major challenge in the Umzinto Distribution System. There is need to develop a maintenance program to cater for leakage. Communities also need to be educated on the importance of reporting leakage in the network. / M

Submitted in fulfillment of the academic requirement for the degree Master of Engineering in Chemical Engineering, Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa, 2017. / Provision of microbiologically safe drinking water for people living in the rural areas of developing countries remains a major challenge to date. One of the reasons is due to the inability to access potable water mainly because of poor existing water purification systems. Current measures have been put in place to address the challenges of rural water supply. Development of appropriate technologies such as decentralized water treatment supply in the form of point of use (POU) systems are been considered. In lieu of the above, an appropriate POU system known as the Remote Rural Water Treatment System (RRWTS) was developed at Durban University of Technology (DUT). The RRWTS is polyester based locally sourced Woven Fabric Microfiltration (WFMF) membrane system. The unit is made up of flat sheet modules that are assembled into a pack. It is a robust gravity driven system with the ability to remove suspended solids and colloids in the form of turbidity. The system has high flux of 35 ± 7 LMH and turbidity below 1 NTU, it has the ability to remove pathogens well above 95%. However, this does not comply with WHO and SANS drinking water standards of zero E. coli count/100 ml of treated water. In order to bring the water treated by RRWTS to a satisfactory level for drinking, it is then necessary to add a separate disinfection step like chlorination step to further remove the remaining microbial contaminants. Thus the main objective of the study was to evaluate the disinfection efficacy of two disinfectants namely waterguard and bromochlor tablet disinfectants and investigate their integration with the WFMF membrane. The study was categorised into three parts. The first part is the addition of disinfectants to unfiltered river water sources for the determination of residual chlorine and the most optimum dose that will yield effective disinfection and also evaluate the extent of E. coli removal by the disinfectants. The second stage was the filtration of four river water sources using the woven fibre membrane (WFM) to determine the efficiency of WFMF. Finally the effect of disinfection kinetics on disinfection was achieved by agitating the water after disinfection and allowing it to stand at different contact times. Performance of the RRWTS was determined by the amount of E. coli and turbidity removed during filtration using WFMF and by chemical disinfectants after filtration. The results on residual chlorine for different water sources showed that feed quality and disinfectant dose determines the quantity of residual chlorine on all the water sources. The effectiveness of chemical disinfectants in E. coli removal is affected by the quality of water to be disinfected. The study showed that turbidity plays a major role on disinfection by increasing chlorine demand on water sources with high turbidity levels. The WFMF demonstrated excellent filtration performance by producing permeates with turbidity less than 1 NTU for feed turbidities ranging from 10 to 200 NTU. The E. coli removal efficiency by WFMF was very high on all the water sources treated. There was 95-99.8% E. coli removal on raw feeds with influent E. coli ranging between 500 and 44500 CFU/100 ml. It was seen that major benefits are derived from integrating the WFMF (RRWTS) with chemical disinfection. The benefits includes; better disinfection that meets drinking water set guidelines of zero E. coli and improved quality of water. The need for disinfection kinetics in order to obtain superior disinfection was eliminated. The possibility of disinfection-by-product formation was reduced as smaller quantities of chemical disinfectants were required for complete disinfection on the filtered water. / M

Orientadores: Peterson Bueno de Moraes, Edério Dino Bidóia / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Tecnologia / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-22T03:26:05Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Claro_ElisMarinaTurini_M.pdf: 2348408 bytes, checksum: 866377db43cbdf888b73040dcfb89167 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013 / Resumo: O uso de tecnologias alternativas de tratamento de água contribui para suprimir limitações e inconvenientes oriundos dos processos convencionais de tratamento. Dentre estas, destaca-se a fotocatálise heterogênea, a qual foi utilizada nesse trabalho visando redução da concentração de matéria orgânica, nitrito, inativação de coliformes totais e Escherichia coli da água do rio Piracicaba, para ser utilizada como água de entrada em uma ETA. Avaliou-se o processo fotocatalítico utilizando TiO2 P25 e ZnO comercial além de fotocatalisadores dopados sintetizados (SiZnO, N-SiZnO, F-N-SiZnO, N-SiZnO + NH4Cl, TiO2 + NaOH, TiO2 + NH4OH e TiO2 + NH4F) nas concentrações 1,0 g l-1 e 0,5 g l-1, submetidos à ação de três fontes de radiação distintas (lâmpada de vapor de mercúrio de 250 W, simulador solar e um reator utilizando LED UV de 0,12 W), avaliando-se a toxicidade com sementes de alface (Lactuca sativa). Os resultados demonstraram que em 0,5 g L-1 dos fotocatalisadores, melhor concentração estudada, todos apresentaram atividade fotocatalítica, sendo que nenhum dos sintetizados foram capazes de proporcionar degradação superior ao TiO2 e ao ZnO para tratamento da água do rio. Os melhores resultados dos fotocatalisadores sintetizados foram obtidos com o N-SiZnO para remoção de matéria orgânica em 60 minutos (37% para vapor de mercúrio) e inativação de micro-organismos maiores que 4,0 log para coliformes totais e E. coli, utilizando vapor de mercúrio em 30 minutos de tratamento, além de apresentar a menor fitotoxicidade para as três fontes de radiação. A lâmpada de vapor de mercúrio foi a que apresentou resultados mais satisfatórios em 60 minutos de tratamento. Para o nitrito, não houve redução nas concentrações em 60 minutos de tratamento em relação à inicial, porém, ocorreu aumento nos valores de nitrito em 15 minutos de tratamento, indicando provável oxidação a nitrato. A fotocatálise heterogênea poderia ser aplicada para utilização como tratamento de água de entrada de uma ETA convencional de ciclo completo, entretanto, devido à necessidade de separação dos fotocatalisadores da água e aumento da toxicidade, é recomendado uma minuciosa análise de custo x benefício / Abstract: The use of alternative technologies for water treatment contributes to suppress limitations and disadvantages of conventional processes. Among the promising technologies, there is heterogeneous photocatalysis which was used in this work in order to reduce the concentration of organic matter, nitrite, inactivation of total coliforms and Escherichia coli in samples of water from Piracicaba River, to be used as primary feed for a Municipal Water Treatment Plant (MWTP). We evaluated the photocatalytic process using TiO2 P25 (Degussa) and commercial ZnO as well as synthesized photocatalysts doped (SiZnO, N-SiZnO, F-N-SiZnO, N-SiZnO + NH4Cl, TiO2 + NaOH, TiO2 + NH4OH and TiO2 + NH4F) in concentrations of 1.0 g L-1 and 0.5 g L-1 irradiated under three different sources (high-pressure mercury vapor lamp, solar simulator and UVLED) and monitoring the toxicity with lettuce seeds (Lactuca sativa). The results showed that 0.5 g L-1 was the best concentration; at this value all photocatalysts presented photo-activity whereas none of the synthesized was able to overcome the degradation rates observed by the TiO2 and ZnO. The best results were obtained by photocatalysts synthesized with N-SiZnO irradiated by the high-pressure mercury lamp: 37% of organic matter removal (60 minutes) and inactivation of microorganisms higher than 4.0 log for total coliforms and E. coli (after 30 minutes of treatment), besides to result in the smallest phytotoxicity of the three radiation sources. The use of mercury vapor lamp showed the best results for 60 minutes of treatment time. No fall in the nitrite concentration was obtained during 60 minutes of treatment although a rise in the nitrite concentration has been observed in 15 minutes, which may indicate probable oxidation to nitrate. The proposed photocatalysts could be applied for treating inlet water's at MWTP; however, due to necessity of separation of solution water-photocatalyst and due to small increase of values observed in the toxicity tests, a detailed cost-benefit analysis is recommended / Mestrado / Tecnologia e Inovação / Mestra em Tecnologia

Orientador: Wilson de Figueiredo Jardim / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Química / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-26T13:39:08Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Pescara_IgorCardoso_D.pdf: 5286232 bytes, checksum: 74793adc4ea590e2eb8fdeb51a796399 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014 / Resumo: Este trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar a eficiência dos tratamentos empregados em cinco estações de tratamento de esgoto (ETE) e duas estações de tratamento de água (ETA) na remoção dos hormônios endógenos estrona (E1), 17?-estradiol (E2), estriol (E3), testosterona (TTN) e progesterona (PROG), hormônios sintéticos 17a-etinilestradiol (EE2), dietilestilbestrol (DES), norgestrel (NGT) e mestranol (MEE), produtos de uso industrial bisfenol A (BPA), fenolftaleína (PhPh), n-nonilfenol (nNP), n-octilfenol (nOP) e triclosan (TCS), o fármaco cafeína (CAF) e o pesticida atrazina (ATZ). Foi possível quantificar BPA, E1, E3, CAF e ATZ em esgoto bruto e BPA, E1, CAF e ATZ em água bruta. Para cada composto, tanto os tratamentos realizados pelas ETE quanto os realizados pelas ETA apresentaram eficiências de remoção variáveis. A cafeína foi o composto-alvo mais frequentemente encontrado nas amostras, sendo escolhida como indicador químico para avaliar a eficiência dos tratamentos. Foi encontrada uma taxa média de 99% para a remoção de CAF pelas ETE, sendo as etapas com tratamentos biológicos as mais eficientes. Os tratamentos anaeróbios apresentaram remoções médias superiores a 80% na remoção de CAF, e os tratamentos aeróbios foram capazes de remover cerca de 20% da carga do composto. Nas ETE, os tratamentos de coagulação e desinfecção foram pouco eficientes nas remoções dos compostos-alvo. Já para as ETA, foram observadas remoções de até 80% de CAF pelos tratamentos empregados, sendo a etapa de coagulação a responsável pela maior remoção de CAF da água bruta. A etapa de filtração em carvão ativado apresentou eficiências de remoção menores que 10%, enquanto a desinfecção demonstrou baixa eficiência na remoção de CAF. Na cidade de São José do Rio Preto ¿ SP foi possível quantificar, ao menos uma vez, BPA, E1, E3, PhPh, CAF, TCS e ATZ em água superficial, BPA, TCS e CAF em água subterrânea e BPA, CAF e ATZ em água de abastecimento. / Abstract: Water and wastewater conventional treatments are often considered inefficient to remove micropollutants. The aim of this work was to evaluate the removal efficiency of the endogenous hormones estrone (E1), 17? estradiol (E2), estriol (E3), testosterone (TTN), and progesterone (PROG), the synthetic hormones 17a-ethinylestradiol (EE2), diethylstilbestrol (DES), norgestrel (NGT), and mestranol (MEE), the industrial chemicals bisphenol A (BPA), phenolphthalein (PhPh), n nonylphenol (nNP), n octylphenol (nOP), and triclosan (TCS), the pharmaceutical caffeine (CAF), and the pesticide atrazine (ATZ) by five wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) and two drinking water treatment plants (DWTP). The target compounds BPA, E1, E3, CAF, and ATZ were found in raw sewage, while BPA, E1, CAF, and ATZ in raw water. Both WWTP and DWTP treatments presented variable removal efficiency. Caffeine was the target compound more often detected in samples, thus it was chosen as a chemical indicator to evaluate treatment efficiencies. The average removal of CAF by WWTP was 99%, in which the biological treatment was more efficient. The anaerobic treatment presented an average removal of CAF above 80%, and around 20% for the aerobic treatments. Coagulation and disinfection treatments of WWTP showed low efficiency to remove the target compounds. DWTP treatment efficiency reached up to 80% removal, with coagulation step presenting highest removals of CAF. The activated carbon filtration showed removal efficiency under 10%, whereas the disinfection step presented low efficiency to remove CAF. At São José do Rio Preto city were found, at least once, BPA, E1, E3, PhPh, CAF, TCS, and ATZ in surface water; BPA, TCS, and CAF in groundwater, and BPA, CAF, and ATZ in drinking water / Doutorado / Quimica Analitica / Doutor em Ciências

Made available in DSpace on 2017-06-01T18:20:46Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 jupiranan_ferreira_silva.pdf: 1162753 bytes, checksum: 18468826771d0c312bc9106cfad94a8f (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015-05-13 / Spills of oil and oil products, such as kerosene and diesel in seawater are cause for concern worldwide due to serious effects caused to the marine and coastal environment. The rate of biodegradation of hydrocarbons in sea water is affected by many physical, chemical and biological parameters, including the number and diversity of endogenous microorganism, the conditions for microbial degradation activity (presence of nutrients, oxygen and favorable conditions pH and temperature), the quantity, quality and bioavailability of contaminants and characteristics of sea water. In this work, two 24 full factorial designs were carried out to analyze the influence of pH (6, 10 and 14) and concentrations of kerosene and nutrients (ammonium sulfate and potassium phosphate monobasic) on degradation of kerosene and production bioemulsifiers/biosurfactants by Candida lipolytica UCP 0988 in seawater. The seawater used in the tests was collected near the beach in Suape Harbor, Pernambuco, Brazil. The biodegradation tests were performed at the temperature of 28 ° C, on a rotatory shaker at 200 rpm, for 5 days. The yeast C. lipolytica UCP 0988 was able to use kerosene (10%, 20% or 30% v / v) and grows in seawater, supplemented with ammonium sulfate and potassium phosphate monobasic, producing biosurfactants with high emulsification activity. The phytotoxicity of biodegradated samples collected with 5 days was evaluated using seed germination and root elongation techniques with Makassar beans (Vigna ungiculata (L.) Walp.). / Derramamentos de petróleo e derivados, como querosene e diesel, em água do mar são motivos de preocupação mundial devido aos sérios efeitos causados ao meio ambiente marinho e costeiro. A taxa de biodegradação de hidrocarbonetos em água do mar é afetada por inúmeros parâmetros físico-químicos e biológicos, incluindo o número e a diversidade de micro-organismos endógenos, as condições para a atividade de degradação microbiana (presença de nutrientes, oxigênio favorável e condições de pH e temperatura), a quantidade, a qualidade e a biodisponibilidade dos contaminantes e características da água do mar. Neste trabalho, dois planejamentos fatoriais completos 24 foram realizados para analisar a influencia do pH (6; 10 e 14) e das concentrações de querosene e nutrientes (sulfato de amônio e fosfato monobásico de potássio) sobre degradação de querosene e produção de bioemulsificantes/biossurfactantes por Candida lipolytica UCP 0988 em água do mar. A água do mar usada nos ensaios foi coletada em praia próxima ao Porto de Suape, Pernambuco, Brasil. Os ensaios de biodegradação foram realizados à temperatura de 28ºC, em um agitador rotatório a 200rpm, durante 5 dias. A levedura C. lipolytica UCP 0988 foi capaz de utilizar querosene (10%, 20% ou 30% v/v) e crescer em água do mar, suplementada com sulfato de amônio e fosfato monobásico de potássio, produzindo biossurfactantes com altas atividades de emulsificação. A fitotoxicidade de amostras biodegradadas coletadas com 5 dias foi avaliada usando técnicas de germinação e crescimento radicular de feijões-macáçar (Vigna ungiculata (L.) WALP.)

The present work shows a study of case about The Use and Energy Conservation in a Water Treatment Company situated in the city of Caraguatatuba. The study takes in account the period between January of 2003 and December of 2004, and the results may be used for the programs about the more efficient use of electric energy. This work did not quantify the losses in the processes, but it pointed the sectors that have possibility of less consumption of energy with simple or complex changes on the operational conditions. Economic aspects were also verified, and some parameters related to electric consumption were analyzed in the invoice, in the contract with delivering companies, and in the operational procedures. Therefore, the present work intension was to contribute for the better use of electric energy, particularly for water treatment companies, but the results and analysis may be extrapolated for the sectors industrial, commercial, and services. / O presente trabalho apresenta um estudo de caso sobre o Uso e Conservação de Energia em uma Estação de Tratamento de Água situada na cidade de Caraguatatuba. O estudo leva em conta o período entre janeiro de 2003 e dezembro de 2004, e os resultados podem ser utilizados para programas sobre o uso mais eficiente de energia elétrica. Esse trabalho não quantifica as perdas nos processos, mas ele aponta os setores que tem possibilidade de menor consumo de energia com simples ou complexas mudanças nas condições operacionais. Aspectos econômicos também foram verificados e alguns parâmetros relacionados ao consumo de energia elétrica foram analisados na fatura, no contrato com as companhias distribuidoras e nos procedimentos operacionais. Assim, a intenção do presente trabalho foi contribuir para o melhor uso da energia elétrica, particularmente para companhias de tratamento de águas, mas os resultados podem ser extrapolados para os setores industrial, comercial e de serviços.

Master of Urban and Regional Planning

In the introductory part of this diploma thesis the pesticidal substances and their legislative requirements in drinking water are described. This is followed by a description of technologies in which pesticides can be removed and used in water treatment plants. In the practical part of the thesis is described description of the experimental procedure of the removal of pesticides on two selected adsorption materials (Filtrasorb F100 and Bayoxide E33) and subsequently this experiment is evaluated.

This diploma thesis deals with the efficiency of removal of pharmaceuticals from drinking water by selected adsorption materials. The first part describes sources of pharmaceuticals in drinking water and possible ways of contaminating water by pharmaceuticals. Subsequently, the pharmaceuticals most commonly found in the environment - nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, antibiotics, psychiatric drugs and sex hormones - are described in more detail. Next, the thesis describes the processes used for removal of pharmaceuticals. These are activated carbon adsorption, membrane processes and advanced oxidation processes. The last chapter of the theoretical part of the thesis deals with water treatment plants, where the technologies for removing drugs are already in operation. In the practical part of this thesis an experiment was performed and evaluated, for a purpose of comparing the efficiency of selected sorption materials in the removal of diclofenac from water. Filtrasorb F100, Bayoxide E33 and GEH were used.

Musk compounds (MUSK) or synthetic fragrances are organic substances commonly used as fragrant constituents of detergents, soaps, cosmetics, personal care products, industrial and in-house cleaning agents, industrial plasticizers, chewing tobacco and fresheners. The big attention is pushed ahead studying these compounds, their fate in different parts of ecosystems and studying their characteristics at present, because musks infiltrate many environmental components, particularly aquatic and marine ecosystems, through their large application and their ability to be perzistant. This diploma thesis was focused on four synthetic “classical” fragrances used over the world. The aim of this study was to perform a method optimisation for the determination of selected fragrances in biotic matrix. There was made an evalution of ability of selected water treatment plant to clear away musks from water, these results were used for evaluating contamination measurement of aquatic ecosystem. The identification and quantification of analytes was carried out by high resolution gas chromatography - mass spectrometry (HRGC/MS).