Thesis (Ph. D.)--Lehigh University, 2006. / Includes vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 169-172).

The main focus of this study is the influence of waves on the heat transfer over sea. In particular, the bulk transfer coefficient CH (the Stanton number), has been investigated for possible wave influence. Measurements from the site Östergarnsholm in the Baltic Sea have been used. The site has a large sector with undisturbed over water fetch. Data during the period 1995-1999 have been used. It is shown that CH behaves differently as it approach z/L=0 from the unstable side depending on the wave state. During growing sea, CH makes a rapid drop as it passes over neutrality, strikingly different from swell conditions where CH makes a much ’smoother’ transition. This difference is also shown to exist for the kinematic heat flux. Based on the definition of CH, it is suggested that one of the reasons of CH’s different behaviour for different stratification and wave state, is ought to be sought in the kinematic heat flux itself. A comparison of the w,θ cospectra during growing sea and swell conditions, showed differences. For growing sea, the larger size eddies dominates the heat flux during unstable conditions. There is no significant difference in peak frequency for different grade of instability. The swell cases showed a more inconsistent behaviour as it approached neutrality, with the peak frequency shifting for different stability ranges. The correlation coefficient between u, the longitudinal wind component, and w, the vertical wind component, Ru,w is also investigated in this study. It is shown that Ru,w is exposed to some wave influence. A comparison of Ru,w as a function of wave age, for neutral and non-neutral stratification is made. For swell cases and non-neutral stratification Ru,w makes a rapid drop and assumes values close to zero. This is not seen for the neutral cases although there is a slight decrease. It is concluded that a certain amount of positive heat flux and inactive turbulence is needed to see this drop in the correlation coefficient. / Sammanfattning av ”Våginflytandet på värmeutbytet över hav” Syftet med studien är att undersöka om det existerar ett våginflytande för värmeutbytet över hav och speciellt eventuellt våginflytande på utbyteskoefficienten CH (Stantons tal). Mätdata från Östergarnsholm utanför Gotland har använts. Denna mätstation har en stor sektor i vilken vindens anloppssträcka ostört är påverkad av hav. Data från perioden 1995–1999 har använts. Stantons tal CH beter sig annorlunda vid övergången från instabil till stabil skiktning beroende på havsytans tillstånd. Vid uppbyggande sjö gör CH ett ’hopp’ då det passerar neutral skiktning. För dyning finns inte detta hopp utan övergången är mycket mjukare. Denna skillnad observeras också hos det turbulenta värmeflödet. Baserat på definitionen av CH föreslås det att dess olika beteende för olika skiktning och vågtillstånd finns att söka i beteendet hos det turbulenta värmeflödet. En jämförelse av cospektrat för vertikal vind, w, och potentiell temperatur, θ, visar att där finns olikheter mellan uppbyggande sjö och dyning. Under instabila förhållanden och uppbyggande sjö domineras värmeflödet av storskaliga virvlar. Det existerar ingen signifikant skillnad i maximal värdets frekvens för olika grad av instabilitet. Dyningsfallen visar ett mer varierat beteende med en maximalvärdes frekvens som skiftar för olika stabilitetsområden. I studien undersöks också korrelationskoefficienten mellan longitudinal vind u, och vertikal vind w, Ru,w. Det visas att Ru,w är utsatt för ett visst våginflytande. Ru,w som en funktion av vågålder jämförs för neutral och icke-neutral skiktning. För dyning och icke-neutral skiktning så faller Ru,w snabbt till små värden nära noll. Detta resultat skiljer sig för neutral skiktning där Ru,w bara gör en svag minskning. Slutsatsen är att det krävs en viss mängd positivt värmeflöde och inaktiv turbulens för att se det kraftiga avtagandet hos korrelationskoefficienten.

57 synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images were collected over the Mid-Atlantic Bight (MAB) during the Shallow Water 2006 experiment (SW06). The dependence of internal wave (IW) signature occurrences and types in SAR images on the wind conditions is studied. A defined signature mode parameter (S sub m ) quantifies the signature of the IW intensity profile in relation to the mean backscatter in the image background to determine different IW types (single positive, single negative and double sign). The statistical results show that moderate wind speeds of 4-7 m/s are favorable for imaging IWs by SAR, whereas very few IW signatures are observed when the wind speed is higher than 10 m/s and lower than 2 m/s. Many S sub m values are larger than 1 (positive signature) even when the angles between the wind direction and IW propagation direction (theta sub Wind-IW) are less than in the MAB, which does not agree with the result of da Silva et al. (2002). An advanced radar imaging model has been run for different wind conditions, radar look directions and IW amplitudes. The model results indicate that the proportion of S sub m values larger than 1, when theta sub Wind-IW < 90 degree , increases with IW amplitudes. In general, relating IW signature types mainly to the wind direction is an oversimplification without considering other factors such as look directions and IW amplitudes. An IW interaction pattern has been studied on the basis of two sequential images from ERS2 and ENVISAT with a time lag of 28 minutes and temperature and current measurements from moorings. Phase velocities of the pattern can be derived by two-dimensional cross correlation of two images or in-situ measurements. In this pattern, the IW packet with a larger amplitude shifts less while the one with a smaller amplitude shifts more due to the interaction. The strong intensity in the interaction zone implies an amplitude increase. The intensity changes in the same IW packet after the interaction implies the energy exchange. All the characteristics agree well with the dynamics of the two-soliton pattern with a negative phase shift, according to Peterson and van Groesen (2000).

Les ondes internes jouent un rôle important dans de nombreux processus dans les océans.L’interaction entre les vagues internes et la topographie océanique a longtemps été un champ de recherche actif. Pourtant, il reste beaucoup de questions sur le sujet. Dans cette thèse, deux processus principaux sont examinés, à savoir la réflexion de faisceaux d’ondes internes sur une pente, et la génération d’ondes sous le vent sur un obstacle tridimensionnel, en utilisant des expériences de laboratoire et des simulations numériques.La réflexion non linéaire d’un faisceau d’onde interne sur une pente uniforme est étudiée à l’aide de la théorie des invisques bidimensionnels et de simulations numériques. Les interactions triadiques résonnantes entre les faisceaux d’ondes incidentes, réfléchies et de deuxième harmonique sont étudiées en développant la théorie existante et en les vérifiant avec des résultats pour des simulations numériques.Dans le cas de la réflexion de faisceaux d’ondes internes tridimensionnels, un fort flux horizontal moyen est induit par le faisceau d’onde, qui perturbe le champ d’onde et affaiblit les secondes harmoniques. La génération de ce flux moyen induit par les vagues est examinée à l’aide des résultats d’expériences et de simulations numériques tridimensionnelles. De plus,les effets de la rotation de fond sur le débit moyen induit par les vagues sont également étudiés à l’aide de simulations numériques.Le courant circumpolaire antarctique est considéré comme l’une des principales sources de mélange dans les océans. La modélisation en laboratoire du courant circumpolaire antarctique a été réalisée sur la plate-forme de Coriolis à LEGI pour étudier la traînée induite par la topographie sur le courant. L’expérience et ses résultats sont également présentés. / Internal waves play an important role in many processes in oceans. The interaction be-tween internal waves and ocean topography has been an active field of research for long. Yetthere are many questions remaining on the topic. In this thesis, two main processes are ex-amined namely, the reflection of internal wave beams on a slope, and generation of lee wavesover a three-dimensional obstacle, using laboratory experiments and numerical simulations.The nonlinear reflection of an internal wave beam on a uniform slope is studied using two-dimensional inviscid theory and numerical simulations. The resonant triadic interactionsamong the incident, reflected and second harmonic wave beams are investigated developingon existing theory and verifying them with results for numerical simulations.In the case of reflection of three-dimensional internal wave beams, a strong mean horizon-tal flow is found to be induced by the wave beam, which perturbs the wave field and weakensthe second harmonics. The generation of this wave-induced mean flow is examined usingresults from experiments and three-dimensional numerical simulations. Furthermore, theeffects of background rotation on the wave induced mean flow are also studied using numer-ical simulations.The Antarctic Circumpolar Current is considered as one of the main sources of mixing inoceans. Laboratory modelling of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current was done in the Coriolisplatform at LEGI to study the topography induced drag on the current. The experiment andits results are also presented.

<p>Gravitational waves and electromagnetic waves are important as carriers of energy and information. This thesis is devoted to the study of the propagation and interaction of these waves in plasmas, with emphasis on nonlinear effects and applications within astrophysics.</p><p>The physical systems are described by the Einstein-Maxwell-fluid equations or Einstein-Maxwell-Vlasov equations, when a kinetic treatment is required. The small amplitude and high-frequency approximation is employed for the gravitational waves, such that perturbative techniques can be applied and space-time can be considered locally flat, with a gravitational radiation field superimposed on it. The gravitational waves give rise to coupling terms that have the structure of effective currents in the Maxwell equations and an effective gravitational force in the equation of motion for the plasma. The Einstein field equations describe the evolution of the gravitational waves, with the perturbed energy-momentum density of the plasma and the electromagnetic field as a source.</p><p>The processes that are investigated are gravitational waves exciting electromagnetic waves in plasmas, altering the optical properties of plasmas and accelerating charged particles. The thesis also deals with the propagation propertities of gravitational and electromagnetic waves, e.g. effects due to resonant wave-particle interactions, plasma inhomogeneties and nonlinear self-interactions. It is also shown that plasmas that are not in thermodynamical equilibrium may release their free energy by emitting gravitational waves.</p>

Gravitational waves and electromagnetic waves are important as carriers of energy and information. This thesis is devoted to the study of the propagation and interaction of these waves in plasmas, with emphasis on nonlinear effects and applications within astrophysics. The physical systems are described by the Einstein-Maxwell-fluid equations or Einstein-Maxwell-Vlasov equations, when a kinetic treatment is required. The small amplitude and high-frequency approximation is employed for the gravitational waves, such that perturbative techniques can be applied and space-time can be considered locally flat, with a gravitational radiation field superimposed on it. The gravitational waves give rise to coupling terms that have the structure of effective currents in the Maxwell equations and an effective gravitational force in the equation of motion for the plasma. The Einstein field equations describe the evolution of the gravitational waves, with the perturbed energy-momentum density of the plasma and the electromagnetic field as a source. The processes that are investigated are gravitational waves exciting electromagnetic waves in plasmas, altering the optical properties of plasmas and accelerating charged particles. The thesis also deals with the propagation propertities of gravitational and electromagnetic waves, e.g. effects due to resonant wave-particle interactions, plasma inhomogeneties and nonlinear self-interactions. It is also shown that plasmas that are not in thermodynamical equilibrium may release their free energy by emitting gravitational waves.

Soliton states in three coupled optical waveguide systems were studied: two linearly coupled waveguides with quadratic nonlinearity, two linearly coupled waveguides with cubic nonlinearity and Bragg gratings, and a quadratic nonlinear waveguide with resonant gratings, which enable three-wave interaction. The methods adopted to tackle the problems were both analytical and numerical. The analytical method mainly made use of the variational approximation. Since no exact analytical method is available to find solutions for the waveguide systems under study, the variational approach was proved to be very useful to find accurate approximations. Numerically, the shooting method and the relaxation method were used. The numerical results verified the results obtained analytically. New asymmetric soliton states were discovered for the coupled quadratically nonlinear waveguides, and for the coupled waveguides with both cubic nonlinearity and Bragg gratings. Stability of the soliton states was studied numerically, using the Beam Propagation Method. Asymmetric couplers with quadratic nonlinearity were also studied. The bifurcation diagrams for the asymmetric couplers were those unfolded from the corresponding diagrams of the symmetric couplers. Novel stable two-soliton bound states due to three-wave interaction were discovered for a quadratically nonlinear waveguide equipped with resonant gratings. Since the coupled optical waveguide systems are controlled by a larger number of parameters than in the corresponding single waveguide, the coupled systems can find a much broader field of applications. This study provides useful background information to support these applications.

Currently, the concept of multipurpose spacecrafts is being transformed into many small spacecrafts each of them performing specific tasks and thus leading to the realization of pico and nano satellites. No matter what is the application or size, demand for more number of IR channels for earth observation is ever increasing which necessitates significant reduction in the mass, power requirement and cost of the IR detectors. In this scenario, several order of magnitude mass and power savings associated with uncooled IR arrays are advantageous compared to cooled photon detectors. However the poor speed of response of uncooled microbolometer array devices obstruct the total replacement of cooled detectors in thermal imaging applications. This is especially true when the mission requires 50 m to 100 m ground resolution, in which even the "fastest" micro bolometer arrays turns "too slow" to follow the ground trace when looked from low earth orbit (LEO). Hence there is a great and unfulfilled requirement of faster uncooled detector arrays for meeting the demand for future micro and mini satellite projects for advanced missions. The present thesis describes the systematic studies carried out in development of high performance IR and THz detectors for space applications. Ge-Si-O thin films are prepared by ion beam sputtering technique with argon (Ar) alone and argon and oxygen as sputtering species, using sputtering targets of different compositions of Ge and SiO2. The deposited thin films are amorphous in nature and have chemical compositions close to that of the target. The study of electrical properties has shown that the activation energy and hence the thermistor constant (β) and electrical resistivity (ρ) are sensitive to oxygen flow rate, and they are the least for thin films prepared with Ar alone as the sputtering species. Different thermal isolation structures (TIS), consisting of silicon nitride (Si3N4) membrane of different thicknesses, Ge-Si-O thin film and, chromium coating on the rear side of the membrane, are prepared by bulk micro-machining technique, whose thermal conductance (Gth) properties are evaluated from the experimentally determined current-voltage (I-V) characteristics. Gth shows non-linear dependence with respect to raise in temperature of thin film thermistor due to Joule heating. The infrared micro-bolometer detectors, fabricated using one of the TIS structures have shown responsivity (<v) close to 115 V W−1 at a bias voltage of 1.5 V and chopping frequency of 10 Hz, thermal time constant (τth) of 2.5 ms and noise voltage of 255 nV Hz−1⁄2 against the corresponding thermal properties of Gth and thermal capacitance Cth equal to 9.0 × 10−5 W K−1 and 1.95 × 10−7 J K−1 respectively. The detectors are found to have uniform spectral response in the infrared region from 2 µm to 20 µm, and NEDT in the range from 108 mK to 574 mK when used with an F/1 optical system. The detector, in an infrared earth sensor system, is tested before an extended black body which simulates the earth disc in the laboratory and the results are discussed. As an extension of the single element detector to array device, design of a microbolometer array for earth sensor dispensing of scanning mechanisms is presented. It makes use of four microbolometer arrays with in-line staggered configuration that stare at the earth horizons, perceiving IR radiation in the spectral band of 14 µm to 16 µm. Design of the microbolometer has been carried out keeping in mind low power, lightweight, without compromising on the performance. An array configuration of 16 × 2 pixels is designed and developed for this purpose. Finite elemental analysis is carried out for design optimization to yield best thermal properties and thus high performance of the detectors. Suitable optical design configuration was arrived to image the earth horizon on to array. Using this optimum design, prototype arrays have been fabricated, packaged and tested in front of the black body radiation source and found to have Responsivity, NEP, and D∗ of 120 V W−1, 5.0 W Hz−1⁄2, 1.10 × 107 cm Hz1⁄2 W−1 respectively. The pixels show a uniform response within a spread of ±6 % and the pixel resistances are within a range of ±5 %. Optically Immersed Bolometer IR detectors are fabricated using electron beam evaporated Vanadium Oxide as the sensing material. Spin coated polyimide is used as medium to optically immerse the sensing element to the flat surface of a hemispherical germanium lens. This optical immersion layer also serves as the thermal impedance control layer and decides the performance of the devices in terms of responsivity and noise parameters. The devices have been packaged in suitable electro-optical packages and the detector parameters are studied in detail. Thermal time constant varies from 0.57 ms to 6.1 ms and responsivity from 75VW−1 to 757VW−1 corresponding to polyimide thickness in the range 2.0 μm to 70 μm for a detector bias of 9V. Highest D obtained was 1.28 × 108 cm Hz1⁄2W−1. Noise Equivalent Temperature Difference (NETD) of 20mK is achieved for devices with polyimide thickness of 32 μm, whereas the NETD × th product is the lowest for devices with moderate thickness of thermal impedance layer. Bolometric THz detectors were fabricated using V2O5 as sensing element immersed onto germanium hemispherical lens using polyimide as immersion media. These detectors were characterized for their efficiency in detection of THz radiation in the range 10 THz to 35 THz emitted by a black body radiator. The responsivity of the devices determined in four different frequency bands covering the spectrum of interest and a maximum responsivity of 398VW−1 was observed. A variation in the responsivity is observed which is due to the characteristics absorption of polyimide in the THz region of interest and can be avoided by replacing with HDPE which has less attenuation. NEP of 6.8 × 10−10WHz−1⁄2 was observed which is very close to the state of art in the case of uncooled detectors which entitles the detectors for spectroscopic applications. Specific Detectivity D* was observed to be much higher than the conventional detectors thanks to the benefits of immersion. NETD of 26mK was observed which is advantageous of application of these detectors in imaging applications These studies have lead to development of a new technology for fabrication of high performance IR and THz detectors which can be used for spectroscopic and imaging applications. Further, this technology can be scaled for development of linear and area arrays finding applications where the speed of respnose as well as sensitivity are of equal importance. from 0.57 ms to 6.1 ms and responsivity from 75 V W−1 to 757 V W−1 corresponding to polyimide thickness in the range 2.0 µm to 70 µm for a detector bias of 9 V. Highest D∗ obtained was 1.28 × 108 cm Hz1⁄2 W−1. Noise Equivalent Temperature Difference (NETD) of 20 mK is achieved for devices with polyimide thickness of 32 µm, whereas the NETD × τth product is the lowest for devices with moderate thickness of thermal impedance layer. Bolometric THz detectors were fabricated using V2O5 as sensing element immersed onto germanium hemispherical lens using polyimide as immersion media. These detectors were characterized for their efficiency in detection of THz radiation in the range 10 THz to 35 THz emitted by a black body radiator. The responsivity of the devices determined in four different frequency bands covering the spectrum of interest and a maximum responsivity of 398 V W−1 was observed. A variation in the responsivity is observed which is due to the characteristics absorption of polyimide in the THz region of interest and can be avoided by replacing with HDPE which has less attenuation. NEP of 6.8 × 10−10 W Hz−1⁄2 was observed which is very close to the state of art in the case of uncooled detectors which entitles the detectors for spectroscopic applications. Specific Detectivity D* was observed to be much higher than the conventional detectors thanks to the benefits of immersion. NETD of 26 mK was observed which is advantageous of application of these detectors in imaging applications These studies have lead to development of a new technology for fabrication of high performance IR and THz detectors which can be used for spectroscopic and imaging applications. Further, this technology can be scaled for development of linear and area arrays finding applications where the speed of respnose as well as sensitivity are of equal importance.