Thesis advisor: Cynthia Lyerly / This thesis analyzes the practice of whipping during the antebellum South from the perspective of both masters and slaves in an attempt to better understand the brutal form of punishment that served as the physical manifestation of the oppressive nature of American slavery. It examines the distinctive culture of honor to reveal how a rigid divide came to be established and fortified along racial lines. Masters are men who desired to uphold the superior position they held in relation to their slaves, using the whip to enforce order and control. Meanwhile, slaves experienced a deep sense of powerlessness as a result of the practice but examples of aggressive resistance to their masters are present. This thesis seeks to shed light on one of the darkest chapters of American history. / Thesis (BA) — Boston College, 2015. / Submitted to: Boston College. College of Arts and Sciences. / Discipline: Departmental Honors. / Discipline: History.

This thesis presents an analysis method for determining the whipping response of a hull girder to underwater explosion (UNDEX) bubble pulse loading. A potential flow-based UNDEX bubble model capable of calculating the behavior of a migrating bubble for up to three pulses is developed. An approximate vertical plane ship vibration model is derived using fundamental beam theory by representing the ship as a free-free beam with varying cross-sectional properties along its length. The fluid-structure interaction is approximated using strip theory and the distant flow assumption. The most severe predicted whipping load conditions are applied to a MAESTRO finite element model of the ship as a quasi-static load case to determine the response of the structure to the whipping loads. The calculated hull girder bending moments are compared to the ultimate bending strength of the hull girder to determine if the girder will collapse. The analysis method is found to be a useful method for determining preliminary UNDEX-induced whipping design load cases for early-stage ship design. However, more detailed and accurate data is needed to validate and verify the predicted whipping responses. It is found that the most severe whipping loads occur as the result of an UNDEX event that occurs under the keel near midship and produces a bubble with a pulsation frequency similar to the natural vibration frequency of the ship in its third mode. Significant damage to the ship structure and hull girder collapse is possible as a result of these loads. / Master of Science

Whipping creams are oil-in-water emulsion which by whipping can be formed to a foam by the incorporation of air into the system. Traditionally whipping creams are made out of milk but today imitation whipping creams based on vegetable fat has gained a large share of the marked due to their many benefits compared to traditionally whipping creams. Imitation whipping creams are both cheaper and more flexible than traditionally creams. By vary the characteristics of the fat system and the cream recipe the properties of the imitation creams can be adapted to fit the purpose of a specific product. The aim of this thesis was to increase the understanding of how different types of fat systems and other ingredients affect the properties of imitation whipping creams based on vegetable fat. This was done by studying three vegetable fat systems with different physicochemical properties. The properties of the fat systems were characterized and the three fat systems were then used for making different imitation whipping creams. The properties of the creams were characterized and the properties of the fat systems and the creams were assessed and compared with each other. The study showed that the fat characteristics that generally seem to have the highest impact on the properties of whipping creams are the structure, the solid fat content and the crystallization temperature of the fat. A fat solution with a hard structure, a high crystallization temperature and a high solid fat content at a wide range of temperatures overall seem to provide the whipping creams with the best properties. This as these fat properties provide the creams with a high foam stability, a high overrun and a short whipping time. This study has also shown that other ingredients than the fat systems provide the creams with diverging properties. This is best shown by the results of the freeze-thaw stability which indicate that a recipe with a high amount of sugar seem to provide the whipping creams with good freeze-thaw stability. Other properties of the whipping creams also seem to be very much influenced by other ingredients than the fat systems but further studies are needed to provide clarity to the complexity of the interplay of the ingredients in whipped creams.

A resistência térmica dos microrganismos sofre influência, entre outros fatores, das características do agente e das características do substrato, como o teor de gordura. Um dos objetivos da pasteurização do creme é a eliminação dos patógenos eventualmente presentes no leite. Entretanto, não há padrão de tempo e temperatura de pasteurização para este produto na legislação. O Mycobacterium bovis é considerado o patógeno não formador de esporo de maior resistência térmica que pode normalmente ser transmitido pelo leite. Assim, este trabalho se propõe a avaliar a inativação de Mycobacterium bovis (espoligotipo BR024) em creme de leite fresco submetido a alguns parâmetros comerciais de pasteurização. Creme de leite foi contaminado e pasteurizado em Banho-Maria a 75°C, 80°C, 85°C e 90°C, por 5 e 15 segundos. O agente foi quantificado por semeadura em duplicata das diversas diluições em meio Stonebrink, após incubação a 36°C/45 dias. A redução na população variou de 3,9 log UFC/mL até a 6,8 log UFC/mL o que mostra que, nas condições do estudo, todos os binômios estudados mostraram-se capazes de reduzir a carga contaminante para níveis tão baixos ou menores que 0,1 log UFC/mL, considerando a máxima contaminação inicial natural do leite por M. bovis (4 log UFC/mL), segundo Ball (1943) / The thermal resistance of microorganisms is influenced by the agent in question, the initial microbial load and the characteristics of the substrate that can exert a protective effect on the cell, for example, the fat content. The pasteurization of whipping cream aims to eliminate pathogen microorganisms that may occasionally be present in milk. However, there is no standard in the law of time and temperature for this product, making it necessary more detailed study to consider the specific feature of thermal resistance of microorganisms at different temperatures for pasteurization, especially considering the high fat product. Mycobacterium spp is considered the pathogen spore-non-forming of higher heat resistance that can be transmitted by milk, among species, M.bovis is the most pathogenic. Therefore, this study aims to evaluate the inactivation of Mycobacterium bovis (spoligotype BR024) in fresh whipping cream subjected to some parameters of commercial pasteurization. Whipping cream was contaminated and pasteurized in a water bath at 75°C, 80°C, 85°C and 90°C for 5 and 15 seconds. The agent was measured in duplicate in the middle Stonebrink after incubation at 36°C/45 days. The reduction in the population ranged from 3.9 log CFU / mL up to 6.8 log CFU/ mL which shows that under the conditions of the study, all binomials studied were able to reduce the contaminant load to such low levels or lower than 0.1 log CFU / ml, the maximum initial natural contamination of milk by M. bovis (4 log CFU / mL), according to Ball (1943)

<p>This thesis represents an attempt to reveal and explain the mysterious excitation sources which cause global wave induced vibrations of ships. The wave induced vibrations of the hull girder are referred to as springing when they are associated with a resonance phenomenon, and whipping when they are caused by a transient impact loading. Both phenomena excite the governing vertical 2-node mode and possibly higher order modes, and consequently increase the fatigue and extreme loading of the hull girder. These effects are currently disregarded in conventional ship design. The thesis focuses on the additional fatigue damage on large blunt ships.</p><p>The study was initiated by conducting an extensive literature study and by organizing an international workshop. The literature indicated that wave induced vibrations should be expected on any ship type, but full scale documentation (and model tests) was mainly related to blunt ships. While the theoretical investigation of whipping mostly focused on slender vessels with pronounced bow flare, full scale measurements indicated that whipping could be just as important for blunt as for slender ships. Moreover, all estimates dealing with the fatigue damage due to wave induced vibration based on full scale measurements before the year of 2000 were nonconservative due to crude simplifications. The literature on the actual importance of the additional fatigue contribution is therefore scarce.</p><p>The workshop was devoted to the wave induced vibrations measured onboard a 300m iron ore carrier. Full scale measurements in ballast condition were compared with numerical predictions from four state-of-the-art hydroelastic programs. The predicted response was unreliable, and the programs in general underestimated the vibration level. The excitation source was either inaccurately described or lacking. The prediction of sea state parameters and high frequency tail behavior of the wave spectra based on wave radars without proper setting and calibration was also questioned. The measurements showed that vibrations in ballast condition were larger than in the cargo condition, the vibration was more correlated with wind speed than wave height, head seas caused higher vibration levels than following seas, the vibration level towards beam seas decayed only slightly, and the damping ratio was apparently linear and about 0.5%. The additional vibration damage constituted 44% of the total measured fatigue loading in deck amidships in the North Atlantic iron ore trade, with prevailing head seas encountered in ballast condition.</p><p>Four hypotheses, which may contribute to explain the high vibration levels, were formulated. They include the effect of the steady wave field and the interaction with the unsteady wave field, amplification of short incident waves due to bow reflection, bow impacts including the exit phase and sum frequency excitation due to the bow reflection. The first three features were included in a simplified program to get an idea of the relative importance. The estimates indicated that the stem flare whipping was insignificant in ballast condition, but contributed in cargo condition. The whipping was found to be sensitive to speed. Simplified theory was employed to predict the speed reduction, which was about 5kn in 5m significant wave height. The estimated speed reduction was in fair agreement with full scale measurements of the iron ore carrier.</p><p>Extensive model tests of a large 4-segmented model of an iron ore carrier were carried out. Two loading conditions with three bow shapes were considered in regular and irregular waves at different speeds. By increasing the forward trim, the increased stem flare whipping was again confirmed to be of less importance than the reduced bottom forces in ballast condition. The bow reflection, causing sum frequency excitation, was confirmed to be important both in ballast and cargo condition. It was less sensitive to speed than linear springing. The second order transfer function amplitude displayed a bichromatic sum frequency springing (at resonance), which was almost constant independent of the frequency difference. The nondimensional monochromatic sum frequency springing response was even higher. The sum frequency pressure was mainly confined to the bow area. Surprisingly, for the sharp triangular bow with vertical stem designed to remove the sum frequency effect, the effect was still pronounced, although smaller. The reflection of incident waves did still occur.</p><p>In irregular head sea states in ballast condition whipping occurred often due to bottom bilge (flare) impacts, starting with the first vibration cycle in hogging. This was also observed in cargo condition, and evident in full scale. This confirmed that the exit phase, which was often inaccurately represented or lacking in numerical codes, was rather important. Flat bottom slamming was observed at realistic speeds, but the vibratory response was not significantly increased. Stern slamming did not give any significant vibration at realistic forward speeds.</p><p>The fatigue assessment showed that the relative importance of the vibration damage was reduced for increasing peak period, and secondly that it increased for increasing wave heights due to nonlinearities. All three bows displayed a similar behavior. For the sharp bow, the additional fatigue damage was reduced significantly in steep and moderate to small sea states, but the long term vibration damage was less affected. The effect of the bulb appeared to be small. The contribution of the vibration damage was reduced significantly with speed. For a representative North Atlantic iron ore trade with head sea in ballast and following sea in cargo condition the vibration damage reduced from 51% at full speed to 19% at realistic speeds. This was less than measured in full scale, but the damping ratio of 1-3.5% in model tests was too high, and the wave damage in following seas in cargo condition was represented by head sea states (to high wave damage due to too high encounter frequency). Furthermore, the contribution from vibration damage was observed to increase in less harsh environment from 19% in the North Atlantic to 26% in similarWorld Wide trade. This may also be representative for the effect of routing. The dominating wave and vibration damage came from sea states with a significant wave height of 5m. This was in agreement with full scale results. In ballast condition, the nonlinear sum frequency springing appeared to be more important than the linear springing, and the total springing seemed to be of equivalent importance as the whipping process, which was mainly caused by bottom bilge (flare) impacts. All three effects should be incorporated in numerical tools.</p><p>In full scale, the vibration response reached an apparently constant level as a function of wave height in both ballast and cargo condition in head seas. This behaviour could be explained by the speed reduction in higher sea states. The vibration level in cargo condition was 60-70% of the level in ballast condition. Although common knowledge implies that larger ships may experience higher springing levels due to a lower eigenfrequency, a slightly smaller ore carrier displayed a higher contribution from the vibration damage (57%) in the same trade, explained by about 1m smaller draft. Moreover, the strengthening of the larger ship resulted in a 10% increase of the 2-node eigenfrequency. The subsequent measurements confirmed that an increased hull girder stiffness was not an effective means to reduce the relative importance of the vibration damage.</p><p>The relative importance of the excitation sources causing wave induced vibration may differ considerably for a slender compared to a blunt vessel. Therefore, full scale measurements on a 300m container vessel were briefly evaluated. The damping ratio was almost twice as high as for several blunt ships, possibly due to significant contribution from the container stacks. The reduced relative importance of the vibration damage with increasing wave height for the iron ore carrier in full scale was opposite to the trend obtained for the container vessel. Less speed reduction in higher sea states was confirmed, and the whipping process was apparently relatively more important for the container vessel. Both for the blunt and slender ship of roughly 300m length, the total fatigue damage due to vibration was of similar importance as the conventional wave frequency damage. The contribution to fatigue damage from wave induced vibrations should be accounted for, for ships operating in harsh environment with limited effect of routing, especially when they are optimized with respect to minium steel weight.</p><p>The four hypotheses were all relevant in relation to wave induced vibrations on blunt ships. Further numerical investigation should focus on the sum frequency springing caused by bow reflection and the whipping impacts at the bow quarter. The wave amplification, steady wave elevation and the exit phase must be properly incorporated. When it comes to design by testing, an optimized model size must be selected (wall interaction versus short wave quality). The speed must be selected in combination with sea state. The wave quality must be monitored, and a realistic damping ratio should be confirmed prior to testing. For the purpose of investigating sum frequency excitation, a large restrained bow model tested in higher waves may be utilized to reduce uncertainties in the small measured pressures.</p>

This thesis represents an attempt to reveal and explain the mysterious excitation sources which cause global wave induced vibrations of ships. The wave induced vibrations of the hull girder are referred to as springing when they are associated with a resonance phenomenon, and whipping when they are caused by a transient impact loading. Both phenomena excite the governing vertical 2-node mode and possibly higher order modes, and consequently increase the fatigue and extreme loading of the hull girder. These effects are currently disregarded in conventional ship design. The thesis focuses on the additional fatigue damage on large blunt ships. The study was initiated by conducting an extensive literature study and by organizing an international workshop. The literature indicated that wave induced vibrations should be expected on any ship type, but full scale documentation (and model tests) was mainly related to blunt ships. While the theoretical investigation of whipping mostly focused on slender vessels with pronounced bow flare, full scale measurements indicated that whipping could be just as important for blunt as for slender ships. Moreover, all estimates dealing with the fatigue damage due to wave induced vibration based on full scale measurements before the year of 2000 were nonconservative due to crude simplifications. The literature on the actual importance of the additional fatigue contribution is therefore scarce. The workshop was devoted to the wave induced vibrations measured onboard a 300m iron ore carrier. Full scale measurements in ballast condition were compared with numerical predictions from four state-of-the-art hydroelastic programs. The predicted response was unreliable, and the programs in general underestimated the vibration level. The excitation source was either inaccurately described or lacking. The prediction of sea state parameters and high frequency tail behavior of the wave spectra based on wave radars without proper setting and calibration was also questioned. The measurements showed that vibrations in ballast condition were larger than in the cargo condition, the vibration was more correlated with wind speed than wave height, head seas caused higher vibration levels than following seas, the vibration level towards beam seas decayed only slightly, and the damping ratio was apparently linear and about 0.5%. The additional vibration damage constituted 44% of the total measured fatigue loading in deck amidships in the North Atlantic iron ore trade, with prevailing head seas encountered in ballast condition. Four hypotheses, which may contribute to explain the high vibration levels, were formulated. They include the effect of the steady wave field and the interaction with the unsteady wave field, amplification of short incident waves due to bow reflection, bow impacts including the exit phase and sum frequency excitation due to the bow reflection. The first three features were included in a simplified program to get an idea of the relative importance. The estimates indicated that the stem flare whipping was insignificant in ballast condition, but contributed in cargo condition. The whipping was found to be sensitive to speed. Simplified theory was employed to predict the speed reduction, which was about 5kn in 5m significant wave height. The estimated speed reduction was in fair agreement with full scale measurements of the iron ore carrier. Extensive model tests of a large 4-segmented model of an iron ore carrier were carried out. Two loading conditions with three bow shapes were considered in regular and irregular waves at different speeds. By increasing the forward trim, the increased stem flare whipping was again confirmed to be of less importance than the reduced bottom forces in ballast condition. The bow reflection, causing sum frequency excitation, was confirmed to be important both in ballast and cargo condition. It was less sensitive to speed than linear springing. The second order transfer function amplitude displayed a bichromatic sum frequency springing (at resonance), which was almost constant independent of the frequency difference. The nondimensional monochromatic sum frequency springing response was even higher. The sum frequency pressure was mainly confined to the bow area. Surprisingly, for the sharp triangular bow with vertical stem designed to remove the sum frequency effect, the effect was still pronounced, although smaller. The reflection of incident waves did still occur. In irregular head sea states in ballast condition whipping occurred often due to bottom bilge (flare) impacts, starting with the first vibration cycle in hogging. This was also observed in cargo condition, and evident in full scale. This confirmed that the exit phase, which was often inaccurately represented or lacking in numerical codes, was rather important. Flat bottom slamming was observed at realistic speeds, but the vibratory response was not significantly increased. Stern slamming did not give any significant vibration at realistic forward speeds. The fatigue assessment showed that the relative importance of the vibration damage was reduced for increasing peak period, and secondly that it increased for increasing wave heights due to nonlinearities. All three bows displayed a similar behavior. For the sharp bow, the additional fatigue damage was reduced significantly in steep and moderate to small sea states, but the long term vibration damage was less affected. The effect of the bulb appeared to be small. The contribution of the vibration damage was reduced significantly with speed. For a representative North Atlantic iron ore trade with head sea in ballast and following sea in cargo condition the vibration damage reduced from 51% at full speed to 19% at realistic speeds. This was less than measured in full scale, but the damping ratio of 1-3.5% in model tests was too high, and the wave damage in following seas in cargo condition was represented by head sea states (to high wave damage due to too high encounter frequency). Furthermore, the contribution from vibration damage was observed to increase in less harsh environment from 19% in the North Atlantic to 26% in similarWorld Wide trade. This may also be representative for the effect of routing. The dominating wave and vibration damage came from sea states with a significant wave height of 5m. This was in agreement with full scale results. In ballast condition, the nonlinear sum frequency springing appeared to be more important than the linear springing, and the total springing seemed to be of equivalent importance as the whipping process, which was mainly caused by bottom bilge (flare) impacts. All three effects should be incorporated in numerical tools. In full scale, the vibration response reached an apparently constant level as a function of wave height in both ballast and cargo condition in head seas. This behaviour could be explained by the speed reduction in higher sea states. The vibration level in cargo condition was 60-70% of the level in ballast condition. Although common knowledge implies that larger ships may experience higher springing levels due to a lower eigenfrequency, a slightly smaller ore carrier displayed a higher contribution from the vibration damage (57%) in the same trade, explained by about 1m smaller draft. Moreover, the strengthening of the larger ship resulted in a 10% increase of the 2-node eigenfrequency. The subsequent measurements confirmed that an increased hull girder stiffness was not an effective means to reduce the relative importance of the vibration damage. The relative importance of the excitation sources causing wave induced vibration may differ considerably for a slender compared to a blunt vessel. Therefore, full scale measurements on a 300m container vessel were briefly evaluated. The damping ratio was almost twice as high as for several blunt ships, possibly due to significant contribution from the container stacks. The reduced relative importance of the vibration damage with increasing wave height for the iron ore carrier in full scale was opposite to the trend obtained for the container vessel. Less speed reduction in higher sea states was confirmed, and the whipping process was apparently relatively more important for the container vessel. Both for the blunt and slender ship of roughly 300m length, the total fatigue damage due to vibration was of similar importance as the conventional wave frequency damage. The contribution to fatigue damage from wave induced vibrations should be accounted for, for ships operating in harsh environment with limited effect of routing, especially when they are optimized with respect to minium steel weight. The four hypotheses were all relevant in relation to wave induced vibrations on blunt ships. Further numerical investigation should focus on the sum frequency springing caused by bow reflection and the whipping impacts at the bow quarter. The wave amplification, steady wave elevation and the exit phase must be properly incorporated. When it comes to design by testing, an optimized model size must be selected (wall interaction versus short wave quality). The speed must be selected in combination with sea state. The wave quality must be monitored, and a realistic damping ratio should be confirmed prior to testing. For the purpose of investigating sum frequency excitation, a large restrained bow model tested in higher waves may be utilized to reduce uncertainties in the small measured pressures.

A resistência térmica dos microrganismos sofre influência, entre outros fatores, das características do agente e das características do substrato, como o teor de gordura. Um dos objetivos da pasteurização do creme é a eliminação dos patógenos eventualmente presentes no leite. Entretanto, não há padrão de tempo e temperatura de pasteurização para este produto na legislação. O Mycobacterium bovis é considerado o patógeno não formador de esporo de maior resistência térmica que pode normalmente ser transmitido pelo leite. Assim, este trabalho se propõe a avaliar a inativação de Mycobacterium bovis (espoligotipo BR024) em creme de leite fresco submetido a alguns parâmetros comerciais de pasteurização. Creme de leite foi contaminado e pasteurizado em Banho-Maria a 75°C, 80°C, 85°C e 90°C, por 5 e 15 segundos. O agente foi quantificado por semeadura em duplicata das diversas diluições em meio Stonebrink, após incubação a 36°C/45 dias. A redução na população variou de 3,9 log UFC/mL até a 6,8 log UFC/mL o que mostra que, nas condições do estudo, todos os binômios estudados mostraram-se capazes de reduzir a carga contaminante para níveis tão baixos ou menores que 0,1 log UFC/mL, considerando a máxima contaminação inicial natural do leite por M. bovis (4 log UFC/mL), segundo Ball (1943) / The thermal resistance of microorganisms is influenced by the agent in question, the initial microbial load and the characteristics of the substrate that can exert a protective effect on the cell, for example, the fat content. The pasteurization of whipping cream aims to eliminate pathogen microorganisms that may occasionally be present in milk. However, there is no standard in the law of time and temperature for this product, making it necessary more detailed study to consider the specific feature of thermal resistance of microorganisms at different temperatures for pasteurization, especially considering the high fat product. Mycobacterium spp is considered the pathogen spore-non-forming of higher heat resistance that can be transmitted by milk, among species, M.bovis is the most pathogenic. Therefore, this study aims to evaluate the inactivation of Mycobacterium bovis (spoligotype BR024) in fresh whipping cream subjected to some parameters of commercial pasteurization. Whipping cream was contaminated and pasteurized in a water bath at 75°C, 80°C, 85°C and 90°C for 5 and 15 seconds. The agent was measured in duplicate in the middle Stonebrink after incubation at 36°C/45 days. The reduction in the population ranged from 3.9 log CFU / mL up to 6.8 log CFU/ mL which shows that under the conditions of the study, all binomials studied were able to reduce the contaminant load to such low levels or lower than 0.1 log CFU / ml, the maximum initial natural contamination of milk by M. bovis (4 log CFU / mL), according to Ball (1943)

A dairy-based whipped topping consisting of 22.0 percent milk fat, 7.5 percent milk solids-not-fat, 12.0 percent sucrose, 10.0 percent corn syrup solids, 0.60 percent gum arabic, 0.06 percent carrageenin, 0.19 percent polyoxyethylene sorbitan rnonostearate, 0.19 percent polyoxythylene sorbitan tristearate, and 0.12 percent sodium stearoyl-2-lactylate was developed that would withstand the rigors of frozen storage. The best products were obtained when the topping was whipped on a Creamery Package 3M-30 continuous type ice cream freezer. Toppings whipped in the laboratory at temperatures higher or lower than -2.2 to -1.0 centigrade were weak and slightly wet. After 18 days frozen storage the toppings whipped at -2.2 centigrade had the best body and texture characteristics. Refrigerated storage after 18 days frozen storage resulted in an enlargement of the air cells and after about 10 days a stale flavor was detected. Commercial application of the formulation was considered feasible.

This thesis explores the crowds that attended London's executions, pillories and public whippings during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. It aims to reappraise a literature describing the carnivalesque and voyeuristic nature of popular behaviour, and to trace a continuum in the public's active engagement with the criminal justice system between 1783 and 1868. By employing a range of little used sources to examine the biographical, geographical and social texture of punishment audiences, it details the lives and motivations of the men, women and children who assembled to watch these often brutal events. In the process, this thesis significantly revises our received understanding of the troublesome punishment 'mob', the unruliness and low character of which has been frequently assumed on the basis of uncritical reading of contemporary sources inveighing against plebeian behaviour. It reveals a more stable picture of public participation, and argues that this experience was characterized by the remarkable social diversity and relative good order of the crowd. This study in consequence problematizes teleological narratives of social 'improvement' and a putative 'civilizing process', which have traditionally described the fall of public punishments as a product of changing urban sensitivities. In analysing the crowd's structure and responses to public punishments over time, the thesis demonstrates how popular expectations surrounding older forms of public justice remained essentially unchanged, and continued to speak forcefully to the metropolitan conscience. To explain the undoubted changes in punishment policy in the period, in the absence of a clear teleological narrative of attitudes towards public punishment, the thesis in turn argues that the decline of the pillory, whippings and public executions in London was driven by elite fears regarding mass behaviour, particularly in the wake of the Gordon Riots of 1780, and suggests that public punishments disappeared not because of their dwindling moral relevance or failing penal utility, but as a result of the middle class's increasingly nervous perceptions of urban mass phenomena. The thesis argues that the decline of public punishment did not result from 'squeamishness' about judicial murder and corporal punishment, but from anxiety about the authority and power of the crowd.

No description available.