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Predators play a critical role in regulating the structure and function of ecosystems by exhibiting top-down forces on lower trophic levels. Despite their important contributions in maintaining ecosystem health, lethal predator control remains a global wildlife management strategy to reduce predation on livestock, culturally and/or economically important species, and species at risk, as well as to reduce conflict with humans. Predator control has received criticism due in part to a paucity of rigorous research on the community-level impacts of this practice, beyond the target prey species. Specifically, there is a lack of understanding of the behavioural consequences of predator control on the wider ecological community. In this thesis, I used a multi-year camera trap dataset to evaluate how government-mandated grey wolf (Canis lupus) population reduction to conserve boreal woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou) could impact the resource selection of the carnivore community in northeast Alberta, Canada. In my second chapter, I investigated whether perceived persecution risk due to predator control may alter wolf habitat selection. I found that wolves switched from positively associating with roads before predator control to avoiding anthropogenic linear features and selecting for block features after predator control. These results suggest that lethal control may prompt wolves to prioritize local prey acquisition near block features over movement on linear features. In my third chapter, I examined whether coyote, lynx, and black bear exhibited shifts in co-occurrence with habitat features, competitors, and prey consistent with a release from top-down suppression in response to predator control. I found that predator control triggered unexpected behavioural changes among coyote and lynx consistent with a release from top-down suppression, but not among black bears. Non-apex predator response to predator control may depend on the strength of competition between the apex and non-apex predator, emphasizing the need to consider bottom-up processes when trying to understand the indirect effects of predator control. This research demonstrates that predator control can have trickle-down effects within the larger ecological community, specifically affecting how species utilize resources. As predator control continues to be a recommended wildlife management strategy, it is imperative to continue investigating its unintended consequences throughout the ecological community. / Graduate

Few wildlife-associated recreation models have examined the contributions of wildlife to recreation experiences. In this study, a mail questionnaire was used to examine the wildlife experiences enjoyed by hunters, birders, environmentalists, wildlife professionals, and forestry professionals. In addition, the study also compared the surveyed groups' socioeconomic characteristics, recreation activities, and organizational affiliations, as well as their perceptions concerning approaches to wildlife management, habitat issues, and the social values attributed to wildlife. While responses often differed according to populations, the surveyed groups enjoyed many of the same wildlife watching experiences and, if they hunted, many of the same hunting experiences. The subjects' outdoor recreation activities and organizational affiliations suggested that the populations' interests in wildlife varied according to primary/secondary- and consumptive/nonconsumptive-orientation. Groups sometimes viewed the social values attributed to wildlife differently, but ecological value of wildlife and the value of wildlife to the enjoyment of future generations were important to all groups surveyed. The social values important to subjects personally sometimes differed from the values they believed justified tax expenditures. Generally, both professional groups agreed with use of five wildlife management approaches, but viewed forest habitat issues differently. The user groups were divided about the use of hunting and timber harvesting to help manage some wildlife species and about the adequacy of forest lands in the Southeast U.S. to meet the needs of some species. The professional groups had similar socioeconomic backgrounds. User groups varied according to age, sex, community type, education, and occupation; however, the user groups had similar household incomes. / Master of Science

The main objective of this project was to determine the possibility and feasibility of creating wildlife clearings through the use of herbicides as compared to conventional methods of bulldozing and hand clearing. The selected study area adjoining a series of 3 compartments designated as Broad Run Research Area, designed to study various methods of habitat manipulation. Twelve areas were selected for treatment and numbered consecutively. Two were abandoned; No. 1 because of its small size and No. 3 because of the value in its natural condition. A square clearing design was arranged in each of the remaining 10 areas. Four herbicides were selected for testing, each proposed clearing was divided into 4 equal sections in order to apply the 4 herbicides to each clearing; one per quarter-section. The 4 herbicides tested were Monuron, Fenuron, 2,4,5-T, and Ammonium sulfamate. Nonuron and Fenuron, in granular form, were applied around the base of each stem at rates of 5 and 10 grams per stem. Stems 0-4.9 inches d.b.h. received 5 grams and stems 5 inches d.b.h. and larger received 10 grams. Ammonium sulfamate and 2,4,5-T were applied to frills cut at waist height. The ax cute in 2,4,5-T treatment were spaced at 4 inch intervals, and in the ammonium sulfamate treatment were continuous and overlapping. These two chemicals were applied by the use of 2 gallon garden sprayers; ammonium sulfamate at a rate of 7lbs. of crystals dissolved in 2 gallons of water and 2,4,5-T at a rate of 12 lbs. active ingredient per 100 gals. of No. 2 diesel fuel. Frills were filled to overflowing. The granular herbicides were applied in June and July 1958 and the frill treatments were made in August of that year. Two stem counts by species were made on each entire area. The first was made immediately after treatment and the second after one complete growing season. The percent of kill was computed for each herbicide based on the stem counts. Herbaceous sample plots 1/100 acre in size, were established in 4 areas representing 4 topographical features. Two stem counts were made on each of these 4 areas. An incidental field study using 1,2, and 4-grams of Fenuron per stem revealed that most woody species can be controlled with 1 gram of active ingredient per stem. Openings were satisfactorily established with Fenuron and Monuron; a lower rate of application could have been used. Techniques used in frilling would have to be altered to obtain satisfactory results when using 2,4,5-T and ammonium sulfamate; complete frills are necessary for 2,4,5-T treatments and the ax cuts placed closer to the root collar in ammonium sulfamate treatments. Sight observations revealed the areas were being used by deer, rabbit, grouse, turkey, and woodcock. / Master of Science

To determine the causes for low hunter kill and presumed poor population growth of the white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) herd in the High Knob (HK) area of Scott and Wise Counties, Virginia, the relative abundance and nutritional status of the deer herd and the habitat quality of the HK area were studied relative to a deer herd and an area in the Stony Creek (SC) section of Giles County, Virginia, known to produce deer of good physical size and antler development and sustained high hunter harvests. Pellet-group surveys, deer collections in September and March, check station data on hunter-killed deer, soil sampling, and quantitative and qualitative forage analyses were used in assessing the HK deer herd and area. The extent to which poaching, free-roaming dogs, and winter weather might be affecting the HK deer herd also was investigated. Pellet group density was significantly lower (P = 0.004) at HK relative to SC and was believed to be indicative of a somewhat lower herd density at HK. In September, the condition of the HK deer herd was similar to that of the SC deer herd. However, the average number of parasites in the abomasums of HK deer was significantly greater (P = 0.0002) than in the abomasums of SC deer. Yearling bucks killed by hunters at HK had significantly lower eviscerated body weights (P = 0.0001), while all bucks killed by hunters at HK had smaller antler beam diameters (P = 0.006) and fewer antler points (P = 0.0001) relative to hunter-killed deer at SC. Because of an abnormally abundant acorn crop at SC in the fall of 1985 and an abnormally mild winter at HK and an abnormally severe winter at SC in 1986-87, the nutritional condition of the HK deer herd relative to the SC deer herd in March in a "normal" year was difficult to ascertain. However, it was inferred that in a "normal" year the HK deer herd would be in worse physical condition in March relative to the SC deer herd. Soil pH, organic matter, and mineral levels were significantly lower (P < 0.1) at HK than at SC. The HK area had significantly greater (P < 0.1) quantities of various vegetation categories than did the SC area in September, 1986. Quantities of common forages consumed by deer in winter were believed to be similar or slightly lower at HK than at SC. However, the average yearly biomass of acorns was believed to be substantially lower at HK than SC due to the greater percentage of the HK area comprised of yellow poplar dominated forest stands. No clear patterns between areas were evident among the forages analyzed for nutritional components. Poaching and harassment by free-roaming dogs were not believed to be substantially different between areas. However, winter weather severity was much greater at HK that at SC. Based on a 10-year average, snowfall is normally over 3X greater at HK relative to SC. Thus, it was concluded that the HK area has a reduced capacity to support highly dense deer herds due to a lack of quality forages in late fall through late winter and greater winter severity relative to SC. / M.S.

A decision-aid system. for determining and achieving optimal distributions of wildlife law enforcement manpower was developed. Manpower distributions were computed by means of a workload formula for a case study application in the J.E.B. Stuart Enforcement District, Virginia Commission of Game and Inland Fisheries. A linear programming model was used to determine least cost methods of achieving prescribed manpower distributions. Simulations of permanent relocations and hiring of personnel were performed to evaluate the impact of management decisions on costs of achieving prescribed distributions. In the case study, total transfer cost resulting from simulated permanent relocation of personnel was 73% that of the present distribution, total transfer cost of simulated hiring of new personnel was 94% that of the present distribution. A simulation of inappropriate location of new personnel resulted in an increase in total transfer cost of 22% over that of the present distribution. These findings were relevant only to the case study; however, the use of the system as a general purpose simulator was demonstrated. Studies were performed of the relationships of patrol area environmental attributes, agent personal background characteristics, enforcement methods, enforcement effort, and season with enforcement efficiency (quality arrest score per enforcement hour). A wildlife law violation seriousness scale was developed in order to compute the measure of enforcement efficiency. Observations were obtained from Virginia wildlife law enforcement agents during November 1977, February, May, and August 1978. Patrol area intensity of 20 environmental variables, 25 personal background variables, 5 enforcement methods variables, total enforcement hours, and 4 study periods were independent variables. Two and 3-way interactions were detected by automatic interaction detection (AID) among total quality arrest score (QAS) by patrol, total QAS by response to citizen notification, and total enforcement hours. Analysis of covariance by multiple regression procedures indicated that methods of enforcement, effort, and their interactions we.re more closely associated with enforcement efficiency than other major categories of independent variables. Total QAS by patrol, total QAS by investigation, an interaction of total QAS by patrol and total enforcement hours, total QAS by response to citizen notification, total QAS by stakeout, and effort showed the greatest association with the dependent variable. To a lesser degree, agent rank, months of service, and whether the agent had been fired from previous employment were also shown to be associated with enforcement efficiency. Only one environmental attribute, the intensity of water recreation in the patrol area, was associated with enforcement efficiency. These results generally supported assumptions employed in the decision-aid system. / Ph. D.

For several years teachers in the public schools have attempted to teach game conservation, but have been confronted with the problem of having available sufficient information on the subject. They have found an abundance of material which has been written in the field, but very little of it has been written in the language of the youth or the layman. This condition has seriously handicapped both teacher and pupil, resulting in fewer units being taught in the field of game conservation. It has been the intention of the author to prepare a volume that would meet the requirements of the high school boy and girl in supplying subject matter material in the field of game conservation. The thesis is divided into three parts, namely: (1) The interdependence of Living Things: (2) Practical Game Management; and (3) Natural and Life Histories of Game Species found in Virginia. The intention of Part I is to attempt to make the pupil realize the necessity and importance of conserving the natural resources, and to show how one form of life is dependent upon other forms. They must realize the necessity of man conforming to the plan of interdependence as set up by nature. Conservation of any of our natural resources must be by this plan or it is doomed. Much has been written on the subject of game management, but relatively little has been organized for use by the general public. It has been written for the technical experts and not in a language understandable by the average person. It has, therefore, been the intention of the author to take the most practical and usable information from the many sources and translate it into material for the average person. Suggested pupil activities were listed in most of the chapters of Part II. Two activities were analyzed in the chapter “Taking a Census of Game Populations” to give the teacher a guide to go by in developing other activities. It was the opinion, not only of the author, but of many consultants, that the content should not be procedure but should be confined mainly to subject matter. From this could evolve unit plans or job analysis suitable to the group with whom the teacher is working. Part III deals with a relatively complete and concise natural and life history description of game species found in Virginia. It will be found that much additional information may be procured from various sources for specific groups or species. The author has attempted to compile, sort, and simplify the material so that it may be in a readable form for the average practical conservationist. / Master of Science