abstract: In September 1945, after the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the United States possessed only one nuclear weapon. Thirteen years later, in September 1958, the nation possessed a significant stockpile of nuclear weapons, including the very powerful hydrogen bomb. The United States was able to build its stockpile of nuclear weapons because the Los Alamos Laboratory, once a secret wartime facility, was able to convert the forces of nature – fission and fusion – into weapons of war. The United States also was successful because of the sacrifice made by a tiny Pacific Ocean nation, The Marshall Islands, and the people of Bikini, Enewetak, and Rongelap Atolls. Between 1946 and 1958, the United States tested sixty-six nuclear weapons in the Marshall Islands. Nuclear testing contaminated these three atolls and, in one instance, injured the people of Rongelap. As a result of this testing many of these people cannot return to their ancestral homes. This dissertation examines the many conditions that led to the creation of the Los Alamos Laboratory, its testing of nuclear weapons in the Marshall Islands, and the long term, perhaps, permanent, displacement of the people of Bikini, Enewetak, and Rongelap. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation History 2015

<p> In this thesis I argue that Hindu nationalist terminology, particularly the concepts of <i>Hindutva, Samyavada,</i> and national identity, modernized amid currents of globalization and neocolonialism in the early twentieth-century. In the theoretical section, I examine how systems of knowledge and power in India were directly and indirectly affected by the globalization of western modernity. In the primary source analysis section, I discuss three prominent Hindu nationalists and their ideas in support of the argument made in the theoretical section. Veer Vinayak Damodar Savarkar (1883-1966), the philosopher of Hindutva, represented the ethno-nationalistic component to Hindu nationalism and looked to cultural motifs in order to unify the &ldquo;true&rdquo; people of India. Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose (1897-1945), the militant hero who formed the Indian National Army and outright opposed the British, contributed the aggressive discourse of nationalist rhetoric. Sarsanghchalak Madhav Sadashiv Golwalkar (1906-1973), the supreme leader of the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), utilized Hindu nationalist rhetoric in order to mesmerize post-independence Indians and lay the foundation for the future of the RSS. Although these individuals represented a current within Indian nationalist history, their lives and literature influenced the language of Hindu nationalism.</p>

abstract: Privateers and pirates were instrumental in the development of English and British colonies and territories through military support and economic enrichment. British policy was to use privateers to help break into the New World when it was dominated by Spain, and Britain’s navy was no match for Spain’s navy. The privateers were used to protect the colonies, like Jamaica, from Spanish invasion and to militarily weaken Spain, Portugal, and others by taking or destroying their ships. Plundering brought in substantial wealth to the colonies and the crown while working for British governors. Eventually, Britain’s policy changed when it became more established in the Caribbean and the New World, and because some of its pro-Catholic monarchs made peace with Spain. Sugar production increased and there was less need for privateers. Most privateers moved to new bases in the North American colonies and Madagascar where they continued to be paid to work on behalf of others, in this case mostly for merchants and local politicians. Besides enriching the North American colonies economies through plunder, the privateers also helped protect them from the Native Americans. As pirates from Madagascar, they raided Mughal merchant fleets, bringing loot and exotic goods to the North American colonies in the seventeenth century, which also helped boost trade with Asia because colonists desired Asian goods. The pirates brought massive numbers of slaves from Madagascar to the colonies to sell. Pirates also operated in the Caribbean. There, they were beneficial to the colonies by bringing in money, yet problematic because they would sometimes raid British ships. When Britain became a global power, privateers and pirates became more of a nuisance than a help to the empire and it stopped using them. Still, in the 1800s, a privateer resurgence occurred in the United States and these individuals and their ships served the same function as they had with Britain, helping a new power break into areas across the sea when it lacked a strong navy. Though somewhat problematic to Britain these privateers did benefit the empire by helping Spain’s colonies gain their independence. / Dissertation/Thesis / Masters Thesis History 2020

This dissertation utilizes archival research and digital methodologies to examine the birth and development of pentecostal mission in Hong Kong between the years 1907 and 1942. Current attention to Hong Kong has tended to focus on the first few years of pentecostal activity in the colony, the growth of early Chinese leadership, and the ways in which pentecostals were different from their evangelical peers. This study takes a longitudinal approach to the pentecostal movement in the colony by viewing it as a form of transnational discourse uniquely related to the local and regional contexts of Hong Kong and southern China. As such, this study is not interested in simply recovering the story of who went where. Instead, it is focused on tracing the changes of pentecostal mission in Hong Kong and understanding how those changes were entangled with the development of global pentecostal self-perception. The dissertation relies upon a broad survey of over six thousand pentecostal periodicals and the creation of a database that enables a meta-level analysis of trends in pentecostal mission. Particular attention is given to five themes: the spatial relationship between pentecostals and the colony, the structural dimensions of the pentecostal movement, common missionary practices, pentecostal spirituality, and pentecostal approaches to gender. By tracing these five themes, the dissertation shows that pentecostal missionary discourse changed dramatically during the first thirty-five-year period in the colony and that changes in missionary ideas, perception, and practices grew from pentecostals’ dialogue with their local environment, global context, and evangelical heritage. This study of pentecostal mission in Hong Kong is divided into three main time periods. From 1907 to 1913, pentecostal missionaries fit the mold of faith missionaries, arriving in China with no formal system of financial support. These missionaries embraced a Sino-Western leadership model and transformed Hong Kong into a transurban center of global missionary outreach. From 1914 to 1928, however, the unified model broke apart, and pentecostal mission, like the broader pentecostal movement, became denominational. As denominational frameworks took hold, missionaries began emulating larger evangelical missionary organizations as they sought to expand their influence into the “interior” of China. From 1929 to 1942, however, the political unrest on the mainland forced pentecostals back to Hong Kong, where they discovered a bevy of new opportunities for mission. Throughout these organizational and spatial changes, pentecostals in Hong Kong were also adapting to the religious marketplace of Hong Kong, negotiating evangelical conceptions of gender and mission and reformulating their place in the global pentecostal movement.

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This paper documents the underlying support many left-leaning Quakers had for the Bolshevik Revolution, displayed through the relief operations of the American Friends Service Committee in Russia from 1919-1931. While the Friends have carried out relief efforts in many areas of the world in their spirit of Christian fellowship, there was added excitement for the work in Russia due to the Bolsheviks' goals of social justice. Therefore, much of why the Friends went, why they stayed so long, and how they were able to achieve so much was due to the influence of communist sympathies in and around Quaker circles. The mission achieved a special place in the minds of many AFSC workers and officials because of these communist sympathies, which eventually blinded many Quakers to the atrocities of the Russian Revolution and the nature of the emerging Soviet regime. / History

This dissertation explores curriculum and instruction in the world history classroom through two manuscripts. These manuscripts describe the effects of educational policy and environmental contexts on the work of world history teachers. The first study analyzes the world history curriculum, and the second study looks at how curriculum was enacted during the COVID-19 pandemic. Additionally, these studies make visible trends of continuity and change in the world history curriculum and teacher decision-making. The first manuscript is a qualitative analysis of the representation of women and gender in Virginia's world history curriculum. This study examines the representation of women and gender in the curriculum by analyzing curricular choices and discourse within the Virginia Standards of Learning (SOLs) and the Curriculum Frameworks. Through content analysis and critical discourse analysis, the study identifies a lack of inclusivity in the world history curriculum and addresses how language reproduces gender stereotypes and negates the contributions of women in comparison to their male counterparts. This study is important for two reasons. First, it adds to the literature on teaching world history which is a lesser researched content area in social studies. Second, it examines how curriculum can influence inclusivity and representation in the historical narrative. This study was recently published in the Iowa Journal for the Social Studies. The second manuscript is a qualitative case study that explores the educational and environmental contexts created by the COVID-19 pandemic and how these contexts affected the curricular-instructional decisions and pedagogical practices of four world history teachers. Initially, I planned to study the effects of teacher knowledge, specifically content knowledge, on the teacher-curriculum relationship. However, the focus shifted to teacher-decision making during the pandemic. This research is vital and useful because it addresses how teachers tried to continue as normal during uncertain times. Data collection included classroom observations, participant interviews, and analysis of instructional materials. Findings reveal that teachers relied on the continuity of the curriculum while changing methods of instructional delivery, adapting classroom assessment practices, and modifying existing assignments. The most promising finding of the study reveals that teachers employed formative assessments to check for understanding and the presence of remote students. Teacher decisions show evidence of pedagogical content knowledge, knowledge of students, and knowledge of contexts. The research shows that teachers made curricular-instructional decisions in reaction to pandemic educational contexts, but these choices often aligned with the research on effective and wise practice in areas like classroom assessment. / Doctor of Philosophy / As a former world history teacher and current teacher educator, I am interested in making the work of classroom teachers visible. In Virginia, world history educators are expected to teach the standardized world history curriculum. I recognized that the world history curriculum was dominated by men but did little to address the issue until I had the opportunity to develop and teach a women's studies course at Christiansburg High School. My knowledge of different types of curricula and curriculum as educational policy grew during my doctoral program. The first study grew out of a class assignment for feminist research methods. I found that men vastly outnumber women, but more importantly, that the wording of the curriculum reproduces gender stereotypes by describing the achievements of women as inferior to those of men. This study shows that the Virginia world history curriculum remained relatively consistent from 2008 to 2015 and the most significant changes reduced inclusivity instead of expanding the curriculum. This study is important because it addresses how women continue to be marginalized and underrepresented in the world history curriculum. The COVID-19 pandemic introduced students and teachers to a series of new and shifting educational and environmental contexts. I originally planned to study how world history teachers navigated the teacher-curriculum relationship, designed their planned curriculum, and then analyze the enacted curriculum or what occurred in the actual classroom. However, it was impossible to escape the educational contexts resulting from the pandemic when conducting my study. Therefore, the second study evolved to focus on the effects of pandemic educational and environmental contexts on the instructional decisions and classroom practices of world history teachers. I discovered that despite their lack of experience with remote instruction, teachers made curricular-instructional decisions that were illustrative of effective and wise practice.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of History / David A. Graff / Cotton was the most important commodity in the economy of the industrialized Western world in the mid-nineteenth century, as vital then as petroleum is today. It was widely believed that a prolonged interruption of the cotton supply would lead not merely to a severe economic depression, but possibly to the collapse of Western Civilization. Three quarters of the world’s cotton supply came from the Southern states of the United States. When the American Civil War erupted and cotton supplies were cut off, the British Cotton Supply Association was faced with the difficult task of establishing cotton cultivation in other locations. In order for the effort to succeed, the British had to obtain and distribute millions of pounds of American cotton seeds. The United States government, the Illinois Central Railroad, and a number of organizations and individuals cooperated to obtain the necessary seeds that the British had to have. American farm equipment manufacturers assisted by designing, making, and distributing portable cotton gins and other implements needed by cotton growers overseas. U.S. consuls overseas sometimes assisted the Cotton Supply Association with seed and equipment distribution. This dissertation is about the implementation of the grand economic strategies of the United States and Great Britain. It is also about the people who implemented those strategies on the ground, people as diverse as Union agents who went into Confederate territory to procure cotton seeds, farmers in Illinois, British consuls who distributed seeds grown in Illinois to farmers in the Ottoman Empire, and English colonists who flocked to Fiji with high hopes of becoming cotton planters. It attempts to measure the impact of the cotton boom and subsequent bust that resulted from the American Civil War on societies around the world.

The aim of this thesis is to establish the political, economic, and military history of Samos over a millennium, from the first arrival of colonists in the Minoan and Mykenaian Ages to the submission of Samos to imperial Athens in 439 B.C. There is little evidence available for the earlier part of this period. And such later traditions about the Ionian Migration as there are have come under severe attack by modern writers, both in detail and on general grounds of chronology. But there are striking instances of the accurate preservation of information going back at least as far, notably in the case of Mopsos of Kolophon, now confirmed even as to date by Hittite records and by the bilingual inscription of Karatepe. Consequently, it is reasonable to take the traditional narrative as a basis, and see whether it receives confirmation from other sources, chiefly archaeological. Apart from the autochthonous Lelegian king Ankaios, we read in ancient writers of several different immigrant groups in the island: fugitives from Krete in the time of Minos, on their way to found Miletos; 'Aiolians' from Lesbos, sent to found a cleruchy some time before the Trojan War; 'Karians' under Tembrion; 'Ionians' from Epidauros under the leadership of Prokles. Prokles' son Leogoros became involved in war against Androklos, founder of Ephesos and one of the Neleid leaders of the general Ionian Migration. This fact enables us to fix the traditional date of Prokles' arrival in Samos to c. 1125, since the Migration took place four generations after the Sack of Troy, which should be dated, following Herodotos and with archaeological confirmation, to c. 1240. The archaeological remains in Samos agree with these traditions. At Tigani there is Minoan pottery contemporary with - or even slightly earlier than - that from the settlements at Miletos. Gradually this gave way to Mykenaian styles, until the Kretan element had quite disappeared. By the time of the Trojan War, however, the Greek element had left Tigani, no doubt replaced by Tembrion's 'Karians'. When the next Greek pottery appears it is LH III C and Sub-mykenaian, not at Tigani but at the Heraion. It may be, therefore, that of the two settlements under Tembrion and Prokles mentioned by the Etymologicon Magnum Tigani is Astypalaia, the Heraion Chesia. In the course of the Ionian Migration, the new Samians sided with the natives against the Neleids, and for a while the island was conquered and held by Androklos. The Samians went into exile for ten years, some traditionally to Anaia and others to Samothrake. There is evidence that a third group sailed further, and founded Kelenderis in Kilikia: the name of this Samian colony occurs in the Karatepe inscription, invoking Ba'al KRNTRS; and since Samian interest in the orient was not resumed until half a century after that inscription was set up, the Greek place-name would seem to have been given before the Dark Age. Names in -nd- of course are as commonly Anatolian as Greek. But there is only one other Kelenderis, and that near Epidauros, serving to confirm that the Samians did indeed come from the eastern Argolid. There is other evidence in support of this tradition (which can be traced as far back as Herodotos in an explicit form), notably the fact that the eponymous hero of the Samian colony Perinthos (602 B.C.) was an Epidaurian and companion of Orestes. For more than three hundred years, c. 1100-750, we are virtually without evidence for Samian history. We must infer from the names of tribes and months that the traditions of Neleid Ionia were assimilated during this period, and it is probable that Samos received Neleid kings. Otherwise there is only the small but steady sequence of pottery and primitive architecture at the Heraion to assure us of the continuity of the islands's habitation. Recorded history reopens in the second half of the eighth century, when we find the self-conscious Ionians destroying the Karian-infiltrated town of Melie. It seems that Samos and Priene made the attach, against the vain resistance of Miletos, itself part Karian, and Kolophon, Melie's metropolis. The victors parcelled out the territory between them, Priens taking Melie itself, Samos the coastal strip northwards from there to Ephesos. The precise border of the two parcels was to be a matter of recurrent dispute between Samos and Priene. It was about the same time that these Ionian alliances were swept into the wider struggle which grew from the agrarian dispute of Chalkis and Eretria over Lelanton. Samos fought on the side of Chalkis, and at the same time helped Sparta against Messenia and received help from Corinth, while Miletos sent aid to Eretria and may have opposed Sparta on behalf of Messenia. The literary tradition of the alliances has archaeological support. Samos shared in the Athenian disaster at Aigina c. 700, and, like Athens, spent much of the first half of the seventh century in reconstruction. This century was politically and economically the age of the Geomoroi, certain defined artistocratic families said to have held their lands ever since the original settlement. Their period of rule marked the avoidance of warfare in favour of commercial expansion overseas. In the first half of the century they had inaugurated large-scale trade with the Near-Eastern kingdoms and with Kypros. In the second half they were the first to find a new source of silver and tin at Tartessos, Cadiz (638 B.C.). Some time previously Samians had become active in Egypt: first mercenaries in the service of Psamatik I; later, after the establishment of Milesian Naukratis c. 650, merchants who secured a special place in the treaty-port. After a short interlude of tyranny, the Geomoroi founded a group of colonies in Propontis, of which the most notable was Perinthos (602. B.C.). Ensuing warfare with Megara, Lesbos, and Priene, weakened the oligarchy and led to the rise of a short-lived democracy, followed by tyranny under Syloson I c. 590. Five years later he was able to make an alliance with Miletos, now entering two generations of stasis and glad even of so unlikely an ally as Samos. Priene was defeated at last, and a new division made of the lands of the Mykale peninsula. Syloson was succeeded by a relative, perhaps a nephew, Polykrates I, whose existence, hitherto unsuspected by modern writers, is argued from literary and archaeological evidence. Under him Samos reached the peak of her prosperity basing megaloprepeia at home upon increased trade abroad. It was this tyrant who reformed the whole basis of Samian agriculture, fostered industry (notably the cosmetic trade), and embarked on the programme of public works which so thrilled Herodotos. He gained an empire among the coastal towns of Ionia and ruled the islands as far as Delos, enjoying the powerful alliance of Sparta and Lydia. Yet when Kyros conquered Lydia, Polykrates rejoiced; for Phokaia was destroyed, and she was Samos' strongest commercial rival, having seized the monopoly of the Tartessian trade. Polykrates was confident that the shipless Persians would leave him alone. In this he was mistaken, and after a raid in which the Heraion was burned down and a cemetery desecrated, the tyranny fell and was replaced by an oligarchy friendly to Persia c. 540. In 533 Polykrates II made himself tyrant and resumed his father's independent policies. For eight years he enforced a rigid military austerity to equal that of Sparta, and defied the Persians. But by 525 it had become clear that the Persians must in the end conquer, and Polykrates deserted his Egyptian allies, following the Kypriote example in going over to the Persian side. The significance of his famous thalassocracy was that his fleet held the balance between the navies of Egypt and Persian Phoinikia. It was probably this that persuaded the Spartans to attempt to unseat him after his defection.