The literature suggests that grain number largely determines and as such limits yield in barley. Many of the reported studies were conducted in relatively low yielding environments and it is unclear if grain number is also a limiting factor in high yield potential climates. Nor is it known with certainty what physiological or morphological traits must be targeted in order to increase grain number. There may be a degree of trade-off between yield components whereby grain number is adjusted according to resource availability to the plant, either pre- or post-anthesis, in a way that ensures consistently well-filled grains at harvest. If mechanisms exist for adjusting grain numbers or grain storage capacity after anthesis to match assimilate availability, this may place limits on how far yield can be increased without increasing post-anthesis assimilate production. In order to determine the scope for increasing the yield potential of barley a more thorough understanding of the potential trade-offs between grain number, grain storage capacity and post-anthesis assimilate supply is required. The aim of research reported in this thesis was to establish what determines the yield of spring barley in Ireland and to investigate the timing and possible mechanisms involved in regulating grain number and grain storage capacity in relation to the supply of photoassimilates. Field experiments were carried out on spring barley (Hordeum vulgare L., cv. Quench) at several locations in Ireland from 2011 to 2013. A sub-set of experiments involving destructive sampling and in-field assessments on plots managed as per current best farm practice gathered crop growth, development, and yield component data across sites and seasons in order to establish what determines yield under typical crop production conditions. Separate experiments artificially manipulated the source:sink ratio of plots via shading and seed rate treatments to investigate in more detail the mechanisms determining grain number and grain weight and any potential trade-off between the two components. Grain number accounted for most of the variation in yield across 9 site/seasons of crops managed as per current best practice in Ireland (P < 0.001; R2 = 0.84) while grain weight remained relatively conserved. Ear number accounted for most of the variation in grain number (P = 0.002; R2 = 0.75) and ear number itself was largely determined by shoot survival from an early season peak through to harvest (P <0.001; R = 0.96). Shoot size and weight at the beginning of stem extension had the largest influence on shoot survival. Shading treatments were used to test whether there was a mechanism for adjusting grain numbers after anthesis to match the availability of assimilate for grain filling. Substantial post-anthesis reductions in assimilate supply during grain filling in 2011 and 2012 did not significantly reduce grain number (P > 0.05). A small reduction in grain number (8%) was found in response to shading for a two week period early post-anthesis in 2013, however this was likely a reduction in grain set in shoots or spikelets that reached anthesis after the treatment was imposed rather than a post-anthesis abortion or down-regulation of grain number. Percentage light interception by well managed (unshaded) canopies shortly after anthesis was generally greater than 93% across several sites and seasons, therefore increasing grain numbers to increase sink capacity would likely be associated with an unavoidable decrease in the amount of light intercepted per grain during the early grain development period. However, experiments showed that grain weight at harvest was neither reduced nor increased in response to variations in light interception during this period of endosperm development (P > 0.05), because soluble sugar concentrations in the grain were maintained at the expense of storage reserve deposition in the stems. Results suggest that grain number and grain storage capacity may both be determined pre-anthesis resulting in a trade-off during stem extension whereby grain numbers are adjusted in a way that helps conserve grain weight. A strong negative relationship between ear number and grain number per ear (P < 0.001; R2 = 0.81) across two sites of seed rate experiments in 2013 resulted in a plateau in overall grain number of approximately 18,000 grains m-2 suggesting that there may be a limit to how many grains can be established in a given environment; this was achieved with an ear number of approximately 1000 ears m-2. Yield potential for Irish conditions was estimated at 12.29 t ha-1 at 85% dry matter based on estimates of potential assimilate supply during grain filling; with a grain number of 26,481 m-2 required to utilise this. These estimates are both 44% higher than the mean yield and grain number achieved in crops managed as per current best farm practice. Once high potential ear numbers are secured (> 1000 m-2), breaking the negative relationship between ear number and grain number per ear may hold the key to further increasing grain number and hence yield potential. Increasing assimilate production and partitioning to ears during stem extension, either through increases in the duration of stem extension or solar radiation use efficiency, may enable larger grain numbers to be produced whilst maintaining or increasing individual grain storage capacity and deposition of stem storage reserves. Water and nutrient availability, as well as susceptibility to lodging may present further limitations to yield in the future.

Agronomic and physiological traits associated with drought adaptation were assessed within the Seri/Babax recombinant inbred line population, derived from parents similar in height and maturity but divergent in their sensitivity to drought. Field trials under different water regimes were conducted over three years in Mexico and under rainfed conditions in Australia. Under drought, canopy temperature (CT) was the single-most drought-adaptive trait contributing to a higher performance (R2= 0.71, p<0.0001), highly heritable (h2= 0.65, p<0.0001) and consistently associated with yield phenotypically (r= -0.75, p<0.0001) and genetically [R(g)= -0.95, p<0.0001]. CT epitomises a mechanism of dehydration avoidance expressed throughout the growing season and across latitudes, which can be utilised as a selection criteria to identify high-yielding wheat genotypes or as an important predictor of yield performance under drought. Early response under drought, suggested by a high association of CT with estimates of biomass at booting (r= -0.44, p<0.0001), leaf chlorophyll (r= -0.22,p<0.0001) and plant height (r= -0.64, p<0.0001), contrast with the small relationships with anthesis and maturity (averaged, r= -0.10, p<0.0001), and with osmotic potential (r= -0.20, p<0.0001). Results suggest that the ability to extract water from the soil under increasing soil water deficit is a major attribute of drought adaptation. Ample genetic variation and significant transgressive segregation under drought suggested a polygenic governance feasible of dissection via molecular markers of CT and associated physiological and agronomic traits. Bulked segregant analysis of selected secondary traits was utilised as an alternative to complete genome mapping, due to a low polymorphism (27%) within the cross and limited chromosomic linkage of loci. The assessment of the extremes of expression in a genotypic subset with a composite molecular database of 127 markers (PCR-based and AFLPs) allowed evaluation of the three hexaploid wheat genomes and coverage of all chromosomic groups, except 3D. One-way analysis of variance indicated significant associations of loci explaining phenotypic variance under drought and rainfed conditions, of 20-70% in Mexico and 20-45% in Australia (F>5.00, p<0.05). Significant loci were established in both latitudes for all physiological and agronomic traits assessed via BSA, with CT being the trait with the most numerous associations (in Mexico, 34 loci; in Australia, 24). Results demonstrate an efficient development of molecular markers associated to physiological traits under specific soil water conditions in Mexico and Australia, and suggest further genomic and transcriptomic studies be conducted for unravelling the complex relationship between drought adaptation and performance under drought. / http://proxy.library.adelaide.edu.au/login?url= http://library.adelaide.edu.au/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=1284279 / Thesis (Ph.D.) -- University of Adelaide, School of Agriculture, Food and Wine, 2007

Agronomic and physiological traits associated with drought adaptation were assessed within the Seri/Babax recombinant inbred line population, derived from parents similar in height and maturity but divergent in their sensitivity to drought. Field trials under different water regimes were conducted over three years in Mexico and under rainfed conditions in Australia. Under drought, canopy temperature (CT) was the single-most drought-adaptive trait contributing to a higher performance (R2= 0.71, p<0.0001), highly heritable (h2= 0.65, p<0.0001) and consistently associated with yield phenotypically (r= -0.75, p<0.0001) and genetically [R(g)= -0.95, p<0.0001]. CT epitomises a mechanism of dehydration avoidance expressed throughout the growing season and across latitudes, which can be utilised as a selection criteria to identify high-yielding wheat genotypes or as an important predictor of yield performance under drought. Early response under drought, suggested by a high association of CT with estimates of biomass at booting (r= -0.44, p<0.0001), leaf chlorophyll (r= -0.22,p<0.0001) and plant height (r= -0.64, p<0.0001), contrast with the small relationships with anthesis and maturity (averaged, r= -0.10, p<0.0001), and with osmotic potential (r= -0.20, p<0.0001). Results suggest that the ability to extract water from the soil under increasing soil water deficit is a major attribute of drought adaptation. Ample genetic variation and significant transgressive segregation under drought suggested a polygenic governance feasible of dissection via molecular markers of CT and associated physiological and agronomic traits. Bulked segregant analysis of selected secondary traits was utilised as an alternative to complete genome mapping, due to a low polymorphism (27%) within the cross and limited chromosomic linkage of loci. The assessment of the extremes of expression in a genotypic subset with a composite molecular database of 127 markers (PCR-based and AFLPs) allowed evaluation of the three hexaploid wheat genomes and coverage of all chromosomic groups, except 3D. One-way analysis of variance indicated significant associations of loci explaining phenotypic variance under drought and rainfed conditions, of 20-70% in Mexico and 20-45% in Australia (F>5.00, p<0.05). Significant loci were established in both latitudes for all physiological and agronomic traits assessed via BSA, with CT being the trait with the most numerous associations (in Mexico, 34 loci; in Australia, 24). Results demonstrate an efficient development of molecular markers associated to physiological traits under specific soil water conditions in Mexico and Australia, and suggest further genomic and transcriptomic studies be conducted for unravelling the complex relationship between drought adaptation and performance under drought. / http://proxy.library.adelaide.edu.au/login?url= http://library.adelaide.edu.au/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=1284279 / Thesis (Ph.D.) -- University of Adelaide, School of Agriculture, Food and Wine, 2007

Proportional loss models commonly used in disease surveys are based on the assumption that per cent yield loss is the same in all crops, regardless of their yield potential. Estimates of regional crop loss may be inaccurate if the relationship between disease and yield loss is affected by crop yield potential. The importance of crop yield potential in disease: yield loss modelling was investigated and models for more accurate regional crop loss estimates were developed, taking crop yield potential into account. Two spring sown barley (cv. Triumph) experiments were conducted in 1987/88 and 1988/89 in Canterbury, New Zealand, to study the effect of crop yield potential on the relationship between disease and yield loss. Crop yield potentials of 323 to 806gDM/m² were generated in seven crops by varying nitrogen and water inputs, sowing date (mid-spring and early-summer) and season. Leaf rust (Puccinia hordei Otth) epidemics of different severity were generated by applying fungicides at different times, frequencies and rates to control the natural epidemics. Disease was measured as per cent disease severity (%DS), green leaf area, radiation interception and near-infrared radiation (NIR) reflectance from crop canopies. Yield was measured as total and grain dry weight. Epidemics were severe in the fully diseased plots from GS 34 and 46 to maturity in the late and early sown crops respectively. Disease reduced grain yield by 50 to 63% in 1987/88 and 24 to 38% in 1988/89 in the fully diseased plots. Disease: yield loss models were derived by regression analysis for each crop in 1987/88. Single point, multiple point and area under curve models were derived from %DS and GLAI variables, and proportional (%) and actual (gDM/m²) grain yield. The effect of yield potential was determined by comparing regression equation coefficients for each crop with crop yield potential. An area under green leaf area index curve (AUGLAIC): actual yield model was best suited to determining the effect of yield potential on yield loss. This model was selected because AUGLAIC summarised the effect of disease on plant growth over the season and actual yield represented the crop yield potential in the absence of disease and the response of actual yield to disease. Crop yield potential did not affect actual yield loss caused by leaf rust. Disease measured as AUGLAIC explained most of the variation in yield (R²adj=0.93) for all crops in both years. Assessment of GLAI is not suitable for estimation of regional crop loss because of the requirement for a rapid and low cost method. Reflectance of NIR from the crop canopy was investigated as an alternative to GLAI measurements. Reflectance was correlated significantly (P<0.001) with GLAI (r=0.66 to 0.89) and green area index (r=0.76 to 0.92). Reflectance measured at grain-filling (GS 85-87) explained most (R²adj=0.94) of the variation in yield for all crops in both years. The relationship between AUGLAIC and yield was validated with data from independent diseased and healthy barley crops. The AUGLAIC: yield model described the effects of disease on yield accurately but overestimated yield by 49 to 108% in the healthy crops. Models based on accumulated PAR (photosynthetically active radiation) intercepted by green leaves explained the observed deviations in yield of these crops from the AUGLAIC: yield model. Accumulated PAR models accounted for differences in incident radiation, canopy structure, radiation interception by green leaves, radiation use efficiency and harvest index which are important in determining dry matter production and grain yield. Accumulated PAR models described the effects of disease on crop growth which were not represented by GLAI alone. Variation in crop yield potential at the regional scale is important in disease: yield loss modelling and can be accounted for by using either separate equations for each yield potential crop or crop category, robust models, inclusion of a form function for yield potential or choice of disease and yield variables which integrate yield potential.

O estudo da diversidade genética e o conhecimento das relações entre cultivares melhoradas é fundamental para os programas de melhoramento de soja, pois auxiliam na seleção de genitores e recomendação de cultivares. Esta tese está subdividida em três capítulos, sendo que o primeiro traz o referencial teórico relacionado à cultura, à importância econômica e ao melhoramento da soja. O segundo capítulo, por sua vez, foi desenvolvido com os objetivos de: avaliar a diversidade genética a partir de caracteres fenotípicos de genótipos de soja convencional de ciclo precoce em ambientes distintos; determinar a importância de caracteres na divergência genética de soja; e selecionar genitores de ampla diversidade genética para programa de melhoramento, utilizando diferentes métodos de agrupamento multivariados. O experimento foi conduzido em dois locais distintos, Campo Novo dos Parecis - MT, safra 2010/2011 e Urutaí - GO, safra 2012/2013. Foram avaliados dez genótipos de soja convencional de ciclo precoce, em delineamento de blocos completos casualizados, nos quais foram mensurados oito caracteres agronômicos. Por meio de análises uni e multivariadas, foi possível concluir que os agrupamentos formados por todos os métodos multivariados, aliados às médias dos valores fenotípicos dos genótipos, permitiram inferir sobre as combinações promissoras para hibridações artificiais. Ao considerar os dois ambientes de cultivo, o número de dias para a floração, a altura da planta na maturidade e altura de inserção da primeira vagem foram os caracteres que mais contribuíram para a divergência genética em soja. As linhagens UFU 106 e UFU 108 são as mais recomendadas como parte das hibridações com genótipos divergentes, pois são complementares em produtividade de grãos e menor fase vegetativa. Recomenda-se hibridações entre os seguintes pares de genótipos: UFU 106 x UFU 112; UFU 106 x Emgopa 316; UFU 108 x Emgopa 316; UFU 112 x Emgopa 316, para a obtenção de populações segregantes com variabilidade genética superior. O terceiro capítulo foi elaborado para avaliar a interação genótipos por ambientes para o caráter produtividade de grãos em genótipos de soja convencional, de ciclo precoce. Assim, os genótipos foram cultivados em 15 ambientes, distribuídos em cinco estados brasileiros, para determinar sua adaptabilidade e estabilidade por intermédio de métodos paramétricos, não paramétricos e multivariados. O método Wricke (1965), Eberhart e Russel (1966) e AMMI identificaram as linhagens UFU 21 e UFU 22 como as mais estáveis, sendo que ambas apresentaram produtividade de grãos superior a 3800,00 kg ha-1. A linhagem UFU 06 obteve média de produtividade de grãos superior a 4000,00 kg ha-1 e apresentou adaptação ampla pelos métodos Annicchiarico (1992) e Lin e Binns (1988) modificado por Carneiro (1998) e Centróide. / The study of genetic diversity and the knowledge of the relationships among improved cultivars are fundamental for soybean breeding programs, since they help the selection of breeders and recommendation of cultivars. This thesis is subdivided into three chapters, the first one deals with a theoretical reference regarding the culture, the economic importance and the improvement of soybean. The second chapter was developed with the objective of evaluating the genetic diversity from phenotypic traits, of conventional early maturity soybean genotypes in different environments, determining the importance of traits in soybean genetic divergence and selecting parents of broad genetic diversity for breeding programs, using different multivariate clustering methods. The experiment was conducted in two distinct locations, Campo Novo dos Parecis - MT, season 2010/2011 and Urutaí - GO, season 2012/2013. Ten genotypes of conventional early maturity soybean were evaluated in a randomized complete block design, in which eight agronomic characters were measured. By univariate and multivariate analyzes it was possible to conclude that the groupings formed by all the multivariate methods, with the means of the phenotypic values of the genotypes, allowed to infer about the promising combinations for artificial hybridizations. Number of days for flowering, plant height at maturity and height of insertion of the first pod were the characters that contributed the most to the genetic divergence in soybean when considering the two crop environments. UFU 106 and UFU 108 lines are the most recommended as part of the hybridizations with divergent genotypes, since they are complementary in grain yield and lower vegetative phase. Hybridizations between the following pairs of genotypes are recommended to obtain segregating populations with superior genetic variability: UFU 106 x UFU 112; UFU 106 x Emgopa 316; UFU 108 x Emgopa 316; UFU 112 x Emgopa 316. The third chapter was elaborated to evaluate the genotype interaction by environments for grain yield characteristics in conventional soybean genotypes of early maturity, grown in 15 environments distributed in five Brazilian states, to determine the adaptability and stability of the genotypes by parametric, non-parametric and multivariate methods. Wricke (1965), Eberhart and Russel (1966) and AMMI methods identified UFU 21 and UFU 22 lines as the most stable, both with grain yields higher than 3800,00 kg ha-1. The strain UFU 06 obtained an average grain yield of more than 4000,00 kg ha-1 and presented wide adaptation by Annicchiarico (1992), Lin and Binns (1988) modified by Carneiro (1998) and Centroid methods. / Tese (Doutorado)