Thesis (MCurr)--Stellenbosch University, 2014. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: In South Africa, currently enrolled nurses make up the largest proportion of members of the nursing healthcare team. As in direct contact with patients it is essential that the practice environment supports patient and nursing outcomes. Studies confirm the complexity of the practice environment and the impact on both personnel and on the quality of nursing care provided. Job satisfaction is integrally linked to the quality and safety of care provided. The scarcity of registered professional nurses, particularly in the South African context, has resulted in enrolled nurses being widely used to continue to deliver acute care in quite complex situations. It is well documented that the use of suboptimal nursing personnel levels or substituting enrolled nurses for registered professional nurses is associated with an increase of adverse events such as infections, pressure ulcers and unanticipated death. The purpose of this study was to explore the experiences of enrolled nurses regarding quality nursing care in general nursing units in the private healthcare setting. The objectives being: - The exploration of the enrolled nurses understanding of the concept of quality care - The exploration of the enrolled nurses understanding of her value and contribution to quality care and - The exploration of the enrolled nurses experiences (positive and negative) of quality nursing care in private health care setting A descriptive qualitative methodology was applied. A purposive sample size of n=13 was drawn from the total population of N=387. An exploratory interview was completed. Lincoln and Guba’s criteria of credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability were applied and ethical principles were met. Findings demonstrated that enrolled nurses experienced both positive and negative work experiences, some more negative than others. They had a very good understanding of quality care but had difficulty in reconciling the patient’s needs with what they were able to deliver, due to workload pressures and resource constraints: P6: “I miss the quality because that patient that needs just that back rub or just to hold his hand ...the thing is with quality nursing we don’t do quality nursing on the patient anymore.” Most participants experienced registered professional nurses absolving their clinical supervisory responsibility. This endangers the quality and duty of care of patients and is a legal liability. A recommendation is that registered professional nurses require professional development through utilising good role models. This exposure to positive learning experiences will enable their professional development and ethical behaviour. Registered professional nurses need to be taught the skills of how to be team players. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Ingeskrewe verpleegsters maak huidiglik die grootste deel van die verplegingsspan se gesondheidsorg uit. As gevolg van die direkte kontak met pasiënte, is dit belangrik dat die omgewingspraktyk pasiënt- en verpleeguitkomste moet kan ondersteun. Navorsingsstudies bevestig die kompleksiteit van die omgewingspraktyk en die impak wat dit op beide personeel en op die kwaliteit van verpleging wat verskaf word, het. Werksbevrediging vorm ’n geïntegreerde skakel met die kwaliteit en veiligheid van sorg wat verskaf word. Die tekort aan geregistreerde professionele verpleegsters, veral binne die Suid-Afrikaanse konteks, het tot die gevolg dat ingeskrewe verpleegsters oral gebruik word om akute sorg in taamlik komplekse situasies te lewer.. Dit is goed gedokumenteer dat die gebruik van suboptimale verpleegpersoneelvlakke of die vervanging van geregistreerde professionele verpleegsters met ingeskrewe verpleegsters, geassosieer word met ’n toename in nadelige gevalle soos infeksies, druk-ulkusse en onverwagte dood. Die doel van hierdie studie is om die ervaringe van ingeskrewe verpleegsters ten opsigte van die kwaliteit van verpleegsorg binne algemene verpleegeenhede in die private gesondheidsorgomgewings te ondersoek. Die doelwitte is ’n ondersoek na die ingeskrewe verpleegsters se: - begrip van die konsep van kwaliteitsorg - begrip van hul waarde en bydrae tot kwaliteitsorg en - ervaringe (positief en negatief) van kwaliteit verpleegsorg binne private gesondheidsorgomgewings. ’n Beskrywende, kwalitatiewe metodologie is toegepas. ’n Doelgerigte steekproefgrootte van n = 13 is geneem uit die totale populasie van N = 387. ’n Voortoets is voltooi. Lincoln en Guba se kriteria van geloofwaardigheid, oordraagbaarheid, betroubaarheid en bevestigbaarheid is toegepas en etiese beginsels is nagekom. Bevindings het bewys dat ingeskrewe verpleegsters beide positiewe en negatiewe werkservaringe gehad het; sommige meer negatief as ander. Hulle het ’n baie goeie begrip van kwaliteitsorg, maar vind dit moeilik om aan die pasiënt se behoeftes, vanweë drukkende werkladings en beperkte bronne te voldoen. P6: “Ek mis die kwaliteit want al wat die pasiënt benodig is die vryf van die rug of net die vashou van sy hand…die probleem met kwaliteitsorg is dat ons nie meer kwaliteitsorg op die pasiënt doen nie.” Die meerderheid van die deelnemers verklaar dat die geregistreerde professionele verpleegkundiges hulle kliniese toesighoudende verantwoordelikheid afskeep. Die gedrag is bydraend tot swak kwaliteit pasient sorg en het direkte wetlik implikasies. Die aanbeveling is dat professionele ontwikkeling van geregistreedrde verpleegkundigies verbeter kan word deur gebruik te maak van goeie rol modelle. Die blootstelling aan positiewe leer ervarings en omgewing sal bydrae tot hulle professionele ontwikkeling en etiese gedragspatrone. Geregistreerde verpleegkundiges moet die vaardighede aanleer om as deel van ’n span te kan funksioneer.

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The ongoing demographic changes in Germany pose increasing challenges for the healthcare system. As society ages, the number of people in need of care rises rapidly, and in the wake of multimorbid illnesses, the quality of care required is constantly changing. But fewer and fewer skilled nursing staff are available in the labor market to cope with this growing need for care. The continuing shortage of skilled workers means that the increasing demands on nursing staff have to be met by fewer and fewer staff. As a result, the workload is increasing enormously, and the health of nursing staff is suffering, causing additional absences due to staff illness and further exacerbating the staff shortage. The incapacity numbers in nursing professions are now at a record high, raising concerns regarding the security of patients. Many nurses now experience mental health problems such as burnout. Previous models to explain the development of burnout in the work context point to the great importance of demands and resources; however, they are too unspecific to make predictions for the nursing context. This thesis therefore, develops a specific model to explain the development of burnout in health care professions (e.g., nursing), with a particular focus on the role of intraindividual resources. For this purpose, a multimethod approach was used in the context of three studies. In the first study, qualitative interviews were conducted in long-term care settings: group interviews in workshops with employees and individual interviews with leaders. Based on these findings, longitudinal surveys in long-term care and hospitals were conducted in the second and third studies to test the hypotheses derived in Study 1. Chapter 4 uses two qualitative interview studies to describe the perspectives of employees and leaders in long-term care regarding perceived challenges in the work context and potential opportunities for change. The results show that self-endangering behaviors promote the development of burnout among caregivers. The study suggests that self-endangering is a harmful coping strategy promoted by high altruistic job motivation, high identification with the team, and low self-esteem. Chapter 5 elaborates on the findings presented in Chapter 4 and tests them using a quantitative longitudinal survey over two measurement time points. The results confirm that high altruistic job motivation leads to more self-endangering behavioral tendencies and cognitions in nurses. Self-endangering cognitions mediate the effect of altruistic job motivation on the experience of exhaustion. Further evidence was found for the effect of low self-esteem on the promotion of self-endangering cognitions. Chapter 6 examines in a longitudinal survey the effect of altruistic job motivation and under what conditions it has a detrimental effect on health and leads to self-endangering tendencies in nurses. Workload, as well as leadership behavior, are examined as moderators. The results show that altruism promotes self-endangering cognitions when qualitative workload is high. In addition, leaders who allow their employees few opportunities to recover from work promote their employees’ self-endangering cognitions. In summary, self-endangering is a harmful coping strategy in caring professions; it promotes burnout and is particularly promoted by high altruistic job motivation and low selfesteem. Both changes in working conditions and behavioral interventions are needed to reduce self-endangering in caregiving and thus maintain caregivers' mental health. Intraindividual resources could be strengthened in interventions, working conditions could be changed, and leaders could be sensitized.:Abstract (English) Zusammenfassung (Deutsch) List of Figures List of Tables Self-Endangering in Nursing Theoretical Background Overview of the Research Program Psychological Mechanisms Underlying Nurses’ Burnout Self-Endangering and Nurses’ Job Motives Self-Endangering and Effects of Workload and Leadership Behavior Overall Discussion References Appendix / Der fortschreitende demographische Wandel in Deutschland stellt das Gesundheitssystem vor wachsende Herausforderungen. Mit zunehmender Alterung der Gesellschaft steigt die Zahl pflegebedürftiger Menschen rapide an und im Zuge von multimorbiden Erkrankungen verändert sich auch die Qualität der Pflegebedürftigkeit stetig. Zur Bewältigung dieses wachsenden Pflegebedarfes stehen immer weniger Fachkräfte in der Pflege dem Arbeitsmarkt zur Verfügung. Der fortschreitende Fachkräftemangel führt insbesondere in der Pflege dazu, dass die immer größere werdenden Arbeitsanforderungen von zunehmend weniger Personal bewältigt werden muss. In Folge dessen steigt die Arbeitsbelastung enorm und die Gesundheit des Pflegepersonals leidet, was zusätzliche Ausfälle durch Erkrankungen des Personals verursacht und die Personalknappheit weiter verschärft. Die Arbeitsunfähigkeitszahlen in pflegenden Berufen sind dadurch inzwischen auf einem Rekordhoch und besorgniserregend für die Versorgungssicherheit der Patienten*innen. Viele Pflegende leiden dabei insbesondere unter psychischen Erkrankungen, wie Burnout. Die bisherigen Modelle zur Erklärung der Entstehung von Burnout im Arbeitskontext weisen auf die große Bedeutung von Anforderungen und Ressourcen hin, sind dabei aber zu allgemein, um spezifische Vorhersagen für den Pflegekontext treffen zu können. Diese Thesis entwickelt daher ein spezifisches Modell zur Erklärung der Entstehung von Burnout in pflegenden Berufen, mit dem besonderen Fokus auf die Rolle von intraindividuellen Ressourcen. Hierzu wurde ein Multimethoden-Verfahren im Rahmen von drei Studien eingesetzt. In der ersten Studie wurden in der stationären Langzeitpflege qualitative Interviews im Rahmen von Gruppeninterviews in Workshops mit Mitarbeitenden und Einzelinterviews mit Führungskräften durchgeführt. Auf Basis der hieraus gewonnenen Erkenntnisse wurden in der zweiten und dritten Studie Längsschnittbefragungen in der Langzeitpflege und im Krankenhaus zur Prüfung, der in Studie 1 abgeleiteten Hypothesen, durchgeführt. Kapitel 4 beschreibt im Rahmen von zwei qualitativen Interviewstudien die Perspektive von Mitarbeitenden und Führungskräften aus der stationären Langzeitpflege hinsichtlich der wahrgenommenen Herausforderungen im Arbeitskontext und möglicher Veränderungsmöglichkeiten. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass selbstaufopfernde Verhaltensweisen die Entstehung von Burnout bei Pflegenden begünstigen. Die Studie legt nahe, dass Selbstaufopferung eine gesundheitsschädliche Bewältigungsstrategie ist, die durch eine hohe altruistische Berufsmotivation, hohe Identifikation mit dem Team und geringen Selbstwert gefördert wird. Kapitel 5 vertieft die in Kapitel 4 dargestellten Ergebnisse und prüft diese anhand einer quantitativen Längsschnittbefragung über zwei Messzeitpunkte. Die Ergebnisse bestätigen, dass eine hohe altruistische Berufsmotivation zu mehr selbstaufopfernde Verhaltenstendenzen und Kognitionen bei Pflegenden führt. Selbstaufopfernde Kognitionen mediieren dabei den Effekt von einer altruistischen Berufsmotivation auf das Erschöpfungserleben. Weitere Hinweise zeigten sich für die Wirkung von geringem Selbstwert auf die Förderung von selbstaufopfernden Kognitionen. Kapitel 6 untersucht die Wirkung einer altruistischen Berufsmotivation in Pflegeberufen und unter welchen Bedingungen diese gesundheitsschädlich wirkt und zu Selbstaufopferungstendenzen von Pflegenden führt. Als Moderatoren werden die Arbeitsbelastung, sowie das Führungsverhalten untersucht. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass Altruismus dann selbstaufopfernde Kognitionen fördert, wenn die qualitative Arbeitsbelastung hoch ist. Darüber hinaus konnte gezeigt werden, dass Führungskräfte, die ihren Mitarbeitenden wenig Möglichkeiten zur Erholung von der Arbeit ermöglichen, die selbstaufopfernden Kognitionen ihrer Mitarbeitenden fördern. Zusammenfassend lässt sich sagen, dass Selbstaufopferung eine gesundheitsschädliche Coping Strategie in pflegenden Berufen darstellt, die Burnout fördert und insbesondere durch eine hohe altruistische Berufsmotivation und ein geringen Selbstwert gefördert wird. Es sind sowohl verhältnis- als auch verhaltensorientierte Maßnahmen notwendig, um Selbstaufopferung in der Pflege zu verringern und damit die psychische Gesundheit des Pflegepersonals zu erhalten. So könnten die intraindividuellen Ressourcen in Interventionen gestärkt, die Arbeitsbedingungen verändert, sowie die Führungskräfte sensibilisiert werden.:Abstract (English) Zusammenfassung (Deutsch) List of Figures List of Tables Self-Endangering in Nursing Theoretical Background Overview of the Research Program Psychological Mechanisms Underlying Nurses’ Burnout Self-Endangering and Nurses’ Job Motives Self-Endangering and Effects of Workload and Leadership Behavior Overall Discussion References Appendix

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People who are homeless rely heavily on acute health care facilities to meet basic health care needs. Medical-surgical nurses play a fundamental role in the health care and health outcomes of patients who are homeless. According to the Institute of Medicine, health care providers’ bias and stereotyping contribute to health disparities among marginalized and vulnerable populations. Because attitudes are linked to clinical decision making and behaviors, revealing how nurses’ attitudes towards patients who are homeless develop and transform is paramount to improving health disparities of the homeless population. The purpose of this study was to explore nurses’ clinical experiences with patients who are homeless in order to discover how attitudes toward care of the homeless develop and transform. Interpretive phenomenology was used to describe and interpret the experiences of 11 medical-surgical nurses who cared for patients who were homeless and reported their attitudes toward this marginalized population had transformed. Nurses’ clinical experiences ranged from 3 to 40 years. Audiotaped semi-structured interviews were conducted. Data analysis was ongoing throughout data collection as delineated by Diekelmann and Allen (1989) and expanded by Minick (1992). Five themes were revealed through interpretation of the rich data. The themes were ‘Discovering homelessness,’ ‘Finding common ground,’ ‘Piecing it together,’ ‘A daily struggle,’ and ‘Relationships based on distrust.’ Nurses’ attitudes were in constant development and transformation. Nurses’ life and clinical experiences created opportunities for attitude transformations. Experiences associated with attitude transformation were identified. Nurses’ experiences revealed how nurses enter practice with an established attitude toward this marginalized population. As nurses came to realize that homelessness was no longer an abstract, intangible concept rather homelessness existed and was present in their day-to-day nursing practices their attitudes began to transform. Nurses sought common experiences with patients who were homeless to create a sense of connectedness in nurse-patient relationships. Nurses described a daily struggle of maintaining positive, non-judgmental attitudes. Nurses shared how early experiences of negative encounters with patients who were homeless created feelings of distrust thus altering nurse-patient relationships with future patients who were homeless. This study contributes to nursing knowledge by revealing how medical-surgical nurses’ attitudes develop and transform and how experiences are associated with attitude change. Recommendations for nursing practice, education, research are identified.

Patients who require mechanical ventilation (MV) are at risk for developing ventilator associated pneumonia (VAP). Nurses’ adherence to sedation vacations (SVs) has a direct impact on the development of VAP, because SVs have been shown to reduce patients’ average duration of MV and length of stay (LOS) in the intensive care unit (ICU). The purposes of this study guided by Donabedian’s (1966) model were to quantify nurses’ level of adherence to SVs, in relation to the health outcomes of critically ill patients, and identify the barriers and facilitators to performing SVs. A correlational design was used. The design included three components: abstraction of patient data from the electronic medical record (EMR) (n=79 with VAP and n=79 without VAP), administration of surveys to ICU nurses (N =34), and vignettes related to SVs. Analyses included descriptive statistics, t-tests, correlations, and analyses of covariance. Most nurses held a Bachelors degree (70.6%), had < 9 years of ICU experience (52.9%), worked in a medical ICU (47.1%), and reported high confidence in managing SVs (M =8.88, SD =1.25). The majority of patients (N =158) were Black (58.2%), males (56.3%), and on average middle-aged (M =61.5, SD =14.91), with a long ICU LOS (M =15.5, SD =11.84), extended duration of MV (M =9.5, SD =8.47), and high acuity (APACHE III) (M =70.2, SD =25.42). The nurses’ education, advanced certification, and ICU experience were not associated with the appropriate implementation of SVs in the vignettes. On average nurses’ had low scores on the vignettes (M =6.97, SD =2.21; possible range =0-14). The adherence rate of nurses’ implementation of SVs, determined using EMR data, was also low (M =24%; SD =23%). There were higher rates of SV adherence in patients without VAP (p (p < .01), and a duration of MV < 6 days (p =.04). These findings indicate that even with established protocols, nurses may not consistently implement the evidenced-based interventions that have been shown to prevent nosocomial infections. Future research is needed to improve nursing practice and the quality of care in this patient population.

More than 6 million people present to emergency departments (EDs) across the US annually with chief complaints of chest pain or other symptoms suggestive of acute myocardial infarction (AMI). Of the million who are diagnosed with AMI, 350,000 die during the acute phase. Accurate triage in the ED can reduce mortality and morbidity, yet accuracy rates are low and delays in patient care are high. The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship between (a) patient characteristics, registered nurse (RN) characteristics, symptom presentation, and accuracy of ED RN triage level designations and (b) delay of care of patients with symptoms suggestive of AMI. Constructs from Donabedian’s Structure-Process-Outcome model were used to guide this study. Descriptive correlational analyses were performed using retrospective triage data from electronic medical records. The sample of 286 patients with symptoms suggestive of AMI comprised primarily Caucasian, married, non-smokers, of mean age of 61 with no prior history of heart disease. The sample of triage nurses primarily comprised Caucasian females of mean age of 45 years with an associate’s degree in nursing and 11 years’ experience in the ED. RNs in the study had an accuracy rate of 54% in triage of patients with symptoms suggestive of AMI. The older RN was more accurate in triage level designation. Accuracy in triage level designations was significantly related to patient race/ethnicity. Logistic regression results suggested that accuracy of triage level designation was twice as likely (OR 2.07) to be accurate when the patient was non-Caucasian. The patient with chest pain reported at triage was also twice as likely (OR 2.55) to have an accurate triage than the patient with no chest pain reported at triage. Electrocardiogram (ECG) delay was significantly greater in the patient without chest pain and when the RN had more experience in ED nursing. Triage delay was significantly related to patient gender and race/ethnicity, with female patients and non-Caucasian patients experiencing greater delay. An increase in RN years of experience predicted greater delay in triage. Further studies are necessary to understand decisions at triage, expedite care, improve outcomes, and decrease deaths from AMI.

Prostate cancer is the most commonly diagnosed cancer and the second leading cause of cancer death among men in the United States. In African American men, the disease is typically detected at a more advanced stage and mortality is twice the rate of Caucasian men. However, African American men are less likely to participate in prostate cancer screening. The purpose of this descriptive study was to assess the relationship between health beliefs, knowledge, and selected demographic variables (age, income and education) and a man’s decision to participate in prostate cancer screening among African American men dwelling in rural communities. The conceptual framework for the study was the Health Belief Model. Participants for the study were recruited through contacts within rural communities within west central Alabama. A convenience sample of 90 African American men between the ages of 40-82 years of age was recruited. Analysis of the research data indicated that there was a statistically significant difference in motivation (health belief), knowledge, and age of men who participated in prostate cancer screening compared to those who did not participate in prostate cancer screening. Forward logistic regression was used to determine which independent variables [health beliefs (benefits, barriers, motivation); knowledge; age; income; and education] were predictors of prostate cancer screening. Results indicated the overall model of one predictor, motivation, was statistically reliable in predicting prostate cancer screening participation among the rural dwelling men surveyed. The model accounted for 15 to 20% of the variance. The sensitivity of the model in predicting those who would participate in prostate cancer screening was 85%. The odds of those who would participate in prostate cancer screening were 1.3 times greater for each one unit increase in motivation. Results indicate a need for more educational and motivational interventions to promote informed decision making by African American men in regards to prostate screening activities. These interventions need to be culturally sensitive and geared toward African American men, specifically those living in rural areas.

Motherhood is a rewarding, but challenging experience. Mothers are expected to balance parenting with multiple roles including employment. How mothers adjust is influenced by their confidence in their role, their mental health, the social support from their partner, family, and friends, and their perceptions of their infants (Mercer, 1995). Maternal confidence has been identified in the literature as an essential variable in the adaptation to motherhood and to the maternal role (Mercer, 1986; Walker, Crain, & Thompson, 1986). Low maternal confidence delays the transitioning into the maternal role/identity as well as limits the satisfaction in the mothering role (Mercer, 1986). Having infants with difficult temperament further impedes this transition resulting in frustration with new mothers and possibly depression (Andrews, 1990). This study used a descriptive correlational design to explore the relationship between infant temperament and selected maternal factors (education, prior childcare experience, social support, and depression) and maternal confidence. A convenience sample of 94 primiparous mothers with infants 6 weeks to 32 weeks participated in this study. SPSS statistical software version 10.0 was used to analyze data and answer the following research questions: 1) What is the relationship between infant temperament, and selected maternal factors (education, prior childcare experience, social support, and depression), and maternal confidence of first-time mothers during their child’s infancy?; 2) What are the differences in maternal confidence between first-time mothers with infants’ age 6 weeks - 16 weeks and first-time mothers with infants’ age 17 weeks – 32 weeks? Results revealed statistical significant relationships between infant temperament, social support, and depression with maternal confidence. Social support also had statistically significant relationships with education and depression. Infant temperament, social support, and depression predicted 20.6% of the variance with maternal confidence. There was also a significant difference between groups with mothers’ perception of their infants’ temperament. Healthcare providers need to be aware that mothers who suffer from depression, have low social support, and perceive their infants to have difficult temperament are at risk for having low confidence in the care they provide for their infants. Further research is needed to explore intervention methods aimed at increasing maternal confidence with new mothers.