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This study measures the perceived competence and likeability of female leaders belonging to three different races, Caucasian, African American, and Asian Indian. The female leaders were manipulated on their leadership styles (agentic, communal or combination). A 3 (target ethnicity: Caucasian, African American and Asian Indian) x 3 (type of leadership: agentic, communal, a combination of agentic and communal) between subjects design was used and 331 participants were obtained via Amazon Mechanical Turk (MTurk). A Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) indicated a significant difference between leadership styles but no statistical significant difference between the three races on perceived competence and likability. Furthermore, the communal leadership style was rated highest on both competence and likability, which may indicate that (1) feminized leadership tactics are gaining more traction and (2) when female leaders are perceived as being successful, there is potential for them to be viewed as simultaneously agentic and communal. However, while this may suggest an advantage for the communal female leader, it may not hold true for the agentic female leader. The female leader with an agentic leadership style was rated lowest on competence and likability, which may suggest that a backlash against agentic female leaders continues to be prevalent.

ABSTRACT When examining disparities in healthcare, notably those facing black men (Danaei et al. 2010; Thorpe Jr et al 2013), trust formation (Smith 2010; Levine 2013), internalization of stigma (Goffman 1963; Becker 2008), and identity construction (Hill Collins 2009, Crenshaw 2010) are three potentially important social processes worthy of consideration. Research has often sought to explore racialized differences in healthcare utilization and health outcomes by operationalizing trust (Adegbembo, Tomar, and Logan 2006; Carpenter et al. 2009), stigma (Wailoo 2006; Stuber, Meyer, and Link 2008), and identity (Mimiaga et al. 2009), but there is little research that speaks to the dynamic relationship between all three processes as they pertain to healthcare (Eaton et al. 2015). Furthermore, previous research on the three processes has not focused on new healthcare interventions and new medical technologies. This dissertation expands the conversation on trust, stigma, and identity by exploring how technological advances—namely, the use of virtual agents—can be employed to potentially increase engagement in healthcare for black men. This dissertation discusses the reciprocal nature of identity construction and internalization of stigma and the impact that both processes have on the health maintenance behaviors of black men, especially insofar as there exists an avenue for technology to mitigate current disparities. With stigma inherently being affixed to characteristics associated with identity, such as race or sexual orientation, and with stigmatized populations sometimes internalizing the negative labels society casts upon them (Becker 2008), understanding the manner in which these two social processes may serve to reinforce each other is key. Next, adopting a position consistent with Eaton et al. (2015), who argued that medical distrust mediates the effect of stigma on engagement in care, I highlight the process of trust and explore the roles of identity construction and internalization of stigma with respect to its formation. This dissertation explores the proactive use of distrust (Levine 2013), as well as what black men I spoke with are reporting that healthcare can do to (re)earn and maintain their trust. Finally, I detail the impact that (dis)trust has on healthcare utilization and the potential ability of embodied conversational agent (ECA) technology (virtual agents) to reduce the social and structural barriers that impact black men’s access to healthcare. In analyzing the relationship between trust and healthcare utilization, which is captured via patients’ healthcare experiences and their activation behaviors (Hibbard and Greene 2013), the impact of both processes on health outcomes are also examined. This dissertation utilizes a mixed methods research frame (Creswell and Creswell 2017), employing both qualitative and quantitative strategies. Focus groups (N=11; participants N=67), key informant interviews (N=12), and interviews (N=5) with participants who pilot test an online health promotion system (Gabe) are integral in providing this research with valuable insight into the ways in which trust, stigma, and identity impact the health behaviors of black men. Quantitative data from a pilot test (N=30) of the Gabe system, an ECA operated health promotion program designed for black men, are also analyzed. Data from risk assessments, demographic surveys, and participant use of the Gabe system serve to buttress the qualitative analysis. By employing an interdisciplinary approach, and exploring the dynamic relationships that exist across identity, stigma, and trust as they pertain to healthcare utilization, this dissertation presents a unique discussion surrounding the capacity of ECA technology to improve access to healthcare for marginalized populations. / Sociology

This thesis focuses on three groups of people: Virginia superintendents, leaders of Virginia Normal and Industrial Institute and Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute, and teachers of Virginia public schools. On their own terms, each of these groups represents a different facet of state level policies of standardization and segregation. The annual and biennial reports published by the office of the Virginia superintendent of public instruction during the early twentieth century constitute the basis of analysis for this thesis. The first chapter of this thesis analyzes introductory letters from the superintendent of public instruction. Within these letters, the superintendent wrote often about public school facility renovations and improvements. The second chapter uncovers how leaders of black institutions of higher education represented their institutions to the superintendent by documenting the success of their graduates and the disciplinary atmosphere of their campuses. Chapter three explores standardization and professionalization measures that the superintendents recommended for Virginia teachers. This thesis adds to our understanding of education in the early twentieth century by looking at every day, bureaucratic decisions in relation to concepts of standardization and race in Virginia. In all, this thesis uncovers three standards of education that developed during the early twentieth century. Putting these three chapters together reveals a complex story about standardization and segregation, a story that, I argue, uncovers how race and power were embedded within everyday decisions and actions at the state level. / Master of Arts / During the early twentieth century, leaders of Virginia public education grappled with concepts of standardization and segregation. Through a close reading of annual and biennial reports published by the office of the Virginia Superintendent of Public Instruction, this research explores how decisions about public education were embedded in race and power. The first chapter of this thesis analyzes introductory letters from the superintendent of public instruction. Within these letters, the superintendent wrote often about public school facility renovations and improvements. The second chapter uncovers how leaders of black institutions of higher education represented their institutions to the superintendent by documenting the success of their graduates and the disciplinary atmosphere of their campuses. Chapter three explores standardization and professionalization measures that the superintendents recommended for Virginia teachers. This thesis adds to our understanding of education in the early twentieth century by looking at every day, bureaucratic decisions in relation to concepts of standardization and race in Virginia. In all, this thesis uncovers three standards of education that developed during the early twentieth century. Putting these three chapters together reveals a complex story about standardization and segregation, a story that, I argue, uncovers how race and power were embedded within everyday decisions and actions at the state level.