The adaptation of inverse dynamics was performed to quantitatively examine the subtle locomotor changes, previously undetectable, in rodent locomotion following nervous system injury. The first experiment performed an injury with known effects, a unilateral lesion of the medial and lateral branches of the left tibial nerve of Long-Evans rats, and measured the resulting data via inverse dynamics. Special effort was made to account for skin movement artefacts using a global optimization method for marker digitization. The second experiment attempted to apply this technique to Long-Evans rats with spinal hemisections at spinal level T-10. After the peripheral nerve injury to the tibial nerve branches, the main findings were that ankle joint still produces an extensor moment and positive power without the active contraction of the gastrocnemius m. It is possible that this phenomenon is due to passive contractile elements of the muscle and tendon. In addition, the knee and hip of the lesion leg stiffen, resulting in substantial reductions in moment generation and nearly total losses of both negative and positive power production. There were also compensations made by the opposite hindlimb and contralateral forelimb. The spinal cord hemisection produced subtle, complicated intra and interlimb changes in both joint moment and joint power analysis that could not be seen by looking at joint angles alone.

<p>The loss of the ability to walk as the result of neurological injury or disease critically impacts the mobility and everyday lifestyle of millions. The World Heath Organization (WHO) estimates that approximately 1% of the world's population needs the use of a wheelchair to assist their personal mobility. Advances in the field of brain-machine interfaces (BMIs) have recently demonstrated the feasibility of using neuroprosthetics to extract motor information from cortical ensembles for more effective control of upper-limb replacements. However, the promise of BMIs has not yet been brought to bear on the challenge of restoring the ability to walk. A future neuroprosthesis designed to restore walking would need two streams of information flowing between the user's brain and the device. First, the motor control signals would have to be extracted from the brain, allowing the robotic prosthesis to behave in the manner intended by the user. Second, and equally important would be the flow of sensory and proprioceptive information back to the user from the neuroprosthesis. Here, I contribute to the foundation of such a bi-directional brain machine interface for the restoration of walking in a series of experiments in two animal models, designed to show the feasibility of (1) extracting locomotor information from neuronal ensemble activity and (2) sending information back into the brain via cortical microstimulation. </p><p>In a set of experiments designed to investigate the extraction of locomotor parameters, I chronically recorded from ensembles of neurons in primary motor (M1) and primary somatosensory (S1) cortices in two adult female rhesus macaques as they walked bipedally, at various speeds, both forward and backward on a custom treadmill. For these experiments, rhesus monkeys were suitable because of their ability to walk bipedally in a naturalistic manner with training. I demonstrate that the kinematics of bipedal walking in rhesus macaques can be extracted from neuronal ensemble recordings, both offline and in real-time. The activity of hundreds of neurons was processed by a series of linear decoders to extract accurate predictions of leg joints in three dimensional space, as well as leg muscle electromyograms (EMGs). Using a multi-layered switching model allowed us to achieve increased extraction accuracy by segregating different behavioral modes of walking.</p><p>In a second set of experiments designed to investigate the usage of microstimulation as a potential artificial sensory channel, I instructed two adult female Aotus trivirgatus (owl monkeys) about the location of a hidden food reward using a series of cortical microstimulation patterns delivered to primary somatosensory (S1) cortex. The owl monkeys discriminated these microstimulation patterns and used them to guide reaching movements to one of two targets. Here, owl monkeys were used which were previously implanted with electrode arrays of high longevity and stability. These monkeys were previously trained on a somatosensory cued task, which allowed a quick transition to microstimulation cueing. The owl monkeys learned to interpret microstimulation patterns, and their skill and speed of learning new patterns improved over several months. Additionally, neuronal activity recorded on non-stimulated electrodes in motor (M1), premotor (PMD) and posterior parietal (PP) cortices allowed us to examine the immediate neural responses to single biphasic stimulation pulses as well as overall responses to the spatiotemporal pattern. Using this recorded neuronal activity, I showed the efficacy of several linear classification algorithms during microstimulation. </p><p>These results demonstrate that locomotor kinematic parameters can be accurately decoded from the activity of neuronal ensembles, that multichannel microstimulation is a viable information channel for sensorized prosthetics, and that the technical limitations of combining these techniques can be overcome. I propose that bi-directional BMIs integrating these techniques will one day restore the ability to walk to severely paralyzed patients.</p> / Dissertation

The locomotion of organisms whether by running, flying, or swimming is the result of multiple degree-of-freedom nervous and musculoskeletal systems interacting with an environment that often flows and deforms in response to movement. A major challenge in biology is to understand the locomotion of organisms that crawl or burrow within terrestrial substrates like sand, soil, and muddy sediments that display both solid and fluid-like behavior. In such materials, validated theories such as the Navier-Stokes equations for fluids do not exist, and visualization techniques (such as particle image velocimetry in fluids) are nearly nonexistent. In this dissertation we integrated biological experiment, numerical simulation, and a physical robot model to reveal principles of undulatory locomotion in granular media. First, we used high speed x-ray imaging techniques to reveal how a desert dwelling lizard, the sandfish, swims within dry granular media without limb use by propagating a single period sinusoidal traveling wave along its body, resulting in a wave efficiency, the ratio of its average forward speed to wave speed, of approximately 0.5. The wave efficiency was independent of the media preparation (loosely and tightly packed). We compared this observation against two complementary modeling approaches: a numerical model of the sandfish coupled to a discrete particle simulation of the granular medium, and an undulatory robot which was designed to swim within granular media. We used these mechanical models to vary the ratio of undulation amplitude (A) to wavelength (λ) and demonstrated that an optimal condition for sand-swimming exists which results from competition between A and λ. The animal simulation and robot model, predicted that for a single period sinusoidal wave, maximal speed occurs for A/ λ = 0.2, the same kinematics used by the sandfish. Inspired by the tapered head shape of the sandfish lizard, we showed that the lift forces and hence vertical position of the robot as it moves forward within granular media can be varied by designing an appropriate head shape and controlling its angle of attack, in a similar way to flaps or wings moving in fluids. These results support the biological hypotheses which propose that morphological adaptations of desert dwelling organisms aid in their subsurface locomotion. This work also demonstrates that the discovery of biological principles of high performance locomotion within sand can help create the next generation of biophysically inspired robots that could explore potentially hazardous complex flowing environments.

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<p>This thesis is about control and balance stability of leggedlocomotion. It also presents a combination of tools that makesit easier to design controllers for large and complicated robotsystems. The thesis is divided into four parts.</p><p>The first part studies and analyzes how walking machines arecontrolled, examining the literature of over twenty machinesbriefly, and six machines in detail. The goal is to understandhow the controllers work on a level below task and pathplanning, but above actuator control. Analysis and comparisonis done in terms of: i) generation of trunk motion; ii)maintaining balance; iii) generation of leg sequence andsupport patterns; and iv) reflexes.</p><p>The next part describes WARP1, a four-legged walking robotplatform that has been builtwith the long term goal of walkingin rough terrain. First its modular structure (mechanics,electronics and control) is described, followed by someexperiments demonstrating basic performance. Finally themathematical modeling of the robot’s rigid body model isdescribed. This model is derived symbolically and is general,i.e. not restricted to WARP1. It is easily modified in case ofa different number of legs or joints.</p><p>During the work with WARP1, tools for model derivation,control design and control implementation have been combined,interfaced and augmented in order to better support design andanalysis. These tools and methods are described in the thirdpart. The tools used to be difficult to combine, especially fora large and complicated system with many signals and parameterssuch as WARP1. Now, models derived symbolically in one tool areeasy to use in another tool for control design, simulation andfinally implementation, as well as for visualization andevaluation—thus going from equation to action.</p><p>In the last part we go back to“equation”wherethese tools aid the study of balance stability when complianceis considered. It is shown that a legged robot in a“statically balanced”stance may actually beunstable. Furthermore, a criterion is derived that shows when aradially symmetric“statically balanced”stance on acompliant surface is stable. Similar analyses are performed fortwo controllers of legged robots, where it is the controllerthat cause the compliance.</p><p><b>Keywords</b>legged locomotion, control, balance, leggedmachines, legged robots, walking robots, walking machines,compliance, platform stability, symbolic modeling</p>

Cette étude sur la locomotion de C. elegans vise à mieux comprendre le fonctionnement de son système nerveux et à apporter des éléments nouveaux de réflexion pour la conception de modèles ou d'objet biomimétiques. Ce travail débute par une description du ver, de sa physiologie ainsi que des principaux modes de locomotion connus : la nage (en milieu liquide) et la reptation (sur gel aqueux). Puis dans le cas de la nage, nous mettons en évidence une dissymétrie du mouvement, nécessaire pour la progression en milieu visqueux. L'analyse des vitesses des déplacements locaux permet de faire un bilan des forces exercées sur le ver, en admettant que celles-ci sont visqueuses. On montre ainsi que les coefficients de friction transverse et longitudinale peuvent être assimilés à ceux d'un ellipsoïde allongé. Dans le cas du mode reptation, on observe une diminution de l'amplitude de la tête vers la queue. L'interaction ver-substrat est abordée d'abord théoriquement (hypothèse de lubrification). Il en résulte des prédictions pour les coefficients de friction en désaccord avec les résultats expérimentaux. Ce désaccord est expliqué par la mise en évidence de seuils de friction statique. On mesure aussi la rigidité passive d'un ver. Un confinement vertical du ver en milieu liquide permet d'observer une transition continue de la nage vers la reptation. On montre que la période du mouvement ainsi que le déphasage entre les mouvements de la tête et la queue augmentent avec le placage. Un confinement horizontal du ver sur substrat permet de contraindre l'amplitude. On montre que la longueur d'onde diminue avec l'amplitude.

En réalité virtuelle, pour adapter les interfaces aux utilisateurs, deux dimensions doivent être étudiées : la tâche et l'utilisateur. <br />La première concerne les tâches d'interaction en réalité virtuelle, plus particulièrement la manipulation et la locomotion. L'étude et la comparaison des propriétés spatiales des environnements réels et virtuels nous permettent de proposer des modèles hiérarchiques de ces tâches, spécifiant les configurations d'interaction problématiques pour un utilisateur. En fonction de ces configurations problématiques, un concepteur devra contraindre le déplacement ou aider l'interaction. La principale difficulté que nous avons identifiée est l'adaptation de l'interface aux référentiels spatiaux de l'utilisateur (égocentrique, exocentrique). <br />La seconde dimension concerne l'identification des caractéristiques de l'utilisateur influençant la performance en fonction de la tâche (locomotion vs. manipulation) et de l'interface (immersive visuellement vs. peu immersive visuellement). Pour la configuration n'induisant que peu d'immersion visuelle, un écran d'ordinateur et un grand écran sont utilisés, l'angle de vue de l'utilisateur est conservé constant. Cette étude montre l'impact sur la performance d'interaction des capacités spatiales, de la dépendance-indépendance à l'égard du champ et de l'expérience en jeu vidéo, pour différentes interfaces et tâches. Nous montrons notamment qu'un grand écran peut soutenir la performance et minimiser l'influence des capacités spatiales sur celle-ci.