M.A. / Literature indicates that childhood ADHD has received considerable attention and recognition in today’s society and is effectively represented in the DSM. In comparison, there is still much controversy surrounding ADHD in adults (aADHD), despite the fact that almost 50 to 70% of people diagnosed with childhood ADHD continue to manifest symptoms in adulthood. Research indicates that aADHD manifests differently to childhood ADHD, in that the core symptom is inattention and not hyperactivity. Research also indicates that there is a high comorbidity between aADHD and substance dependence, including nicotine dependence. It is hypothesized that these individuals present with hypodopamine, and nicotine acts on a number of neurotransmitter pathways, including the dopaminergic and acetylcholinergic pathways, effectively stimulating the release of dopamine. Whilst there is considerable literature on nicotine and ADHD, there is a complete lack of literature on the relationship between aADHD and Hookah Pipe smoking. This study aimed to rectify this situation. The present study was conducted with two major purposes in mind: (1) to investigate the relationship between Hookah Pipe smoking and its effects on attention and concentration in young adults with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) symptomatology, and (2) to demonstrate whether Hookah has a greater effect than cigarettes (as Hookah reportedly has higher concentrations of nicotine than cigarettes). A total sample of 39 participants (14 males, 35 females) aged 18 to 26 years was recruited and divided into the following six groups using the ASRS, the Burke-Austin Self-Report ADHD Questionnaire and a substance abuse questionnaire as screening tools: ADHD (Hookah), ADHD (Nicotine), ADHD (Non-Smoking), Non-ADHD (Hookah), Non-ADHD (Nicotine) and Non-ADHD (Non-Smoking). Furthermore, a quasi-experimental research design was used, whereby the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery (CANTAB) ADHD Battery was administered across three test conditions, with a seven minute intervention between the pre- and post-intervention, and a 90 minute waiting period between the immediate and intermediate post-intervention, so as to test the effects of the nicotine as it neared its elimination half-life of two hours.

M.A. (Clinical Psychology) / Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a form of psychopathology characterised by difficulties with hyperactivity, attention and behavioural inhibition. Although ADHD has been historically considered a disorder specific to children, the contemporary consensus among researchers is that, in some cases, ADHD may persist into adulthood. Neurologically, ADHD is associated with deficits in the executive functions, located in the frontal lobe. Cortical arousal, which refers to the level of neuronal activity in the cerebral cortex and is measurable using electroencephalograph machinery (EEGs), is usually lower in the frontal lobes in those with ADHD when compared to individuals without the disorder. With regards to anxiety disorders, which are dysfunctional variations in the normal fear response, the aetiology of the pathologies in this category are multifaceted and complex. At the neurological level, however, there is a clear link between anxiety disorders and hypervigilance, which is characterised by high cortical arousal in the frontal lobes. Despite the fact that, at face value, it seems impossible for an increase and decrease in cortical arousal to occur simultaneously, ADHD is often diagnosed alongside anxiety disorders, and it is this anomaly which is the focus of this study. Electroencephalograph machinery (EEGs) are able to measure levels of cortical arousal using electrodes placed on the scalp. This research employs this equipment in order to elucidate on how cortical arousal manifests during a task that demands significant involvement from the frontal areas of the brain. A quasi-xperimental research design using non-parametric statistics (Mann-Whitney U Test) was used in order to compare the levels of cortical arousal between 4 groups of 5 research participants with either ADHD, an anxiety disorder, comorbid ADHD and anxiety and no discernible psychopathology. The significant results found in this study point to the fact that, in cases where ADHD and anxiety disorders occur comorbidly, there is a possibility that the anxiety component enables an individual to achieve more pronounced levels of attention, concentration and focus than normal participants and those with ADHD alone...

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The current study is a multimethod, longitudinal exploration of friendship patterns of children with ADHD. We relied on information from parent and teacher ratings, self-report measures of children and their friends, and observational data from three interactive tasks. In the two phases of the study, the participants were 112 children and their friends between the ages of 7 and 13: ADHD group dyads, n = 68; comparison group dyads, n = 44. Results indicated that the friendships of children with ADHD differed from the friendships of the comparison group. Overall, children with ADHD had friendships that, although stable over time, were of lower duration and stability than the friendships of comparison children. The lower duration and stability of friendships in the ADHD group coincided with more single-parent households in this group, which may indicate elevated family stress. However, children with ADHD were no different than comparison children in regards to the age of their friends and the places where they met them. At both participations, ADHD dyads reported fewer positive friendship features than comparison dyads. Furthermore, children with ADHD reported less intimacy toward their friends, less help and guidance, and less validation and caring. The friendship behaviour dynamics observed during the interactive tasks differed between the two groups. Children with ADHD violated more rules and were less altruistic and sensitive during interactions. Additionally, children with ADHD showed less positive and more non-positive affect while relating to their friends. When a decision that involved a compromise had to be made, the length of interaction was greater and coincided with displayed non-positive affect. Additionally, their friendly interactions were observed to be characterized by unequal power distribution as opposed to those in the comparison group where there was greater power equality. However, our results also suggest that the behavioural trajectory over time was similar between the ADHD and comparison groups. The friendships of ADHD and comparison children were rich in positive and negative friendship features reported by the two friends, and over time there was more open reporting of the negative friendship aspects. Our results did not seem to be affected by gender and age differences, ADHD subtypes, comorbidities, or medication status. Through outlining friendship patterns of children with ADHD, we are hopeful that our findings may be useful to mitigate negative social consequences of ADHD. A practical clinical application may be in recommending measures and creating interventions aimed at promoting friendship and improving social adjustments in children and young adolescents with ADHD.

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurobehavioral disorder that affects 11% of children in the US alo­ne. Methylphenidate (MPH) is the most commonly prescribed drug for the treatment of ADHD. Given the fact that ADHD symptoms persist in up to 50% of patients, many children receive MPH from childhood to early adulthood. Unfortunately, most of the scientific literature focuses on the short-term consequences of MPH, even though individuals are taking MPH for many years. Previous research has shown that long-term exposure to MPH causes dopamine-releasing neurons within the nigrostriatal pathway to die when exposed to the Parkinsonian toxin 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP). MPH acts by blocking dopamine transporters and norepinephrine transporters, preventing the reuptake and removal of these neurotransmitters following release and increasing the time outside of the protective environment of the neuron’s vesicles. We hypothesize that spontaneous oxidation of excess dopamine to a quinone metabolite is rendering these neurons within this particular pathway to be more sensitive to MPTP. The dopamine quinone may be bound by the antioxidant glutathione (GSH) in an effort to protect the cell against oxidative stress. However, as the finite amount of GSH is depleted, the quinone may lead to the production of highly reactive molecules, leading to mitochondrial damage and cell death which may be accelerated by MPTP. In order to examine this hypothesis, we chose to study adolescent male Swiss-Webster mice, which have been shown to be resistant to MPTP’s toxic effects. They were divided into 3 cohorts and administered either saline (control), 1 mg/kg MPH (therapeutic dose) or 10 mg/kg (abusive dose) via intraperitoneal (IP) injections for 12 weeks. Mice were injected twice daily, Monday through Friday, mimicking a school-week dosing schedule. After 12 weeks, all animals received a drug washout period of 7 days. Then, half of each cohort was treated with MPTP (4 x 20 mg/kg, every 2 hours), while the other half was administered 4 injections of sterile saline. Either 3 or 7 days after MPTP or saline treatment, the mice were sacrificed, brains were removed, and the substantia nigra (SN) and striatum (STR) were collected. These areas of the brain make up the nigrostriatal pathway and are affected by Parkinson’s disease. Oxidative stress related to increased dopamine levels was determined using the glutathione assay to measure GSH content, near-infrared fluorescence dot blots to measure free and protein-bound ortho-quinones, and an ATP luciferase assay to measure mitochondrial function. Interestingly, there was a significant decrease in GSH as the dose of MPH was increased with both saline and MPTP samples. Furthermore, a significant increase in quinones was observed as the dose of MPH increased. We also expect to see a decrease in ATP inversely proportional to the dose of MPH indicating increased oxidative stress. In conclusion, it appears that long-term exposure to MPH sensitizes dopaminergic neurons within the nigrostriatal pathway to oxidative stress, rendering them vulnerable to further insults, such as MPTP exposure. As such, these studies provide insight into the risks of long-term psychostimulant exposure.

A literature review was performed to examine the existing research on COVID-19 lockdown as it relates to ADHD child/adolescent individuals, media use, and impact on their educational performance and learning. It was surmised that with the COVID-19 epidemic prompting a transition to remote learning, a less structured and isolated learning environment, combined with increased screen time, would impair ADHD individuals’ performance and learning. A literature search for articles published between 2020 and 2021 from Pubmed, Google Scholar, PsychInfo, was performed. Search phrases and keywords included “covid, ADHD, child, impact, remote learning, media, screen”. Studies primarily utilized parental reports, with very few from the perspective of the ADHD individuals’ themselves. It was found that with the COVID-19 quarantine and transition to online learning, ADHD individuals’ experienced decreased ability to keep focused or adhere to daily routine, as well as increased inattention-related problems, such as careless mistakes or lack of completion in homework, which in turn translated into overall subjective reports of “more difficulty with remote learning.” Increased screen time, television, social media and gaming were noted amongst ADHD individuals. The suggested impact of increased screen time and media use was that ADHD children with problematic digital media use suffer from more severe core symptoms of ADHD, negative emotions, executive function deficits, damage on family environment, pressure from life events, and a lower motivation to learn. With these findings, it would be expected that the number of new ADHD cases, prescriptions for and usage of stimulants for treatment would rise amidst the COVID epidemic. However, data has not been studied or well documented thus far. Further research could extend to studying the impact of remote learning on neurotypical children and the risk for misdiagnosis of ADHD in children and adolescents or over-prescribing medications to youths with and without ADHD.

A dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment for the requirements of the degree of Master of Arts in Clinical Psychology at the University of Zululand, South Africa, 2004. / The use of drug stimulation to treat children who have been diagnosed with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) sparks much controversy. Parental perception of this practise is crucial since it is the parents that have the task of making this sensitive decision. In order to subjectively explicate parental feelings regarding this issue, a qualitative approach was considered appropriate in this study. The study sought to highlight the views of parents around the use of stimulant medication in the treatment of ADHD. In- depth interviews of the four participants were audio taped and then transcribed verbatim. The interviews were unstructured and an open- ended question guideline was utilised. The interviews underwent stringent thematic analysis. Amongst others, the major themes that emerged were those of guilt, frustration, resignation and the strained mother- child relations associated with infant behaviour and the diagnosis. Findings revealed mixed feelings around the use of medication with Ritalin being the most commonly prescribed. However, even though there are mixed feelings associated with medication use, the positive outcomes of this practise outweigh the negative aspects. Although the benefits are great, the future risk of long-term use of stimulant medication is unknown

The aim of the study was to investigate educators’ knowledge and attitudes towards children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). In particular the study sought: 1. To determine the level of educators knowledge and attitudes about ADHD 2. To ascertain whether or not is a significant difference in attitude between educators in the mainstream school and those in the resource centre (remedial school);and 3. To determine the relationship, if any, between educators’ perceptions of ADHD children and certain educators’ characteristics discussed further in the study. In this study, the focus was on primary school learners. Primary school learners are learners who are between grades one and seven. The target population was primary school educators in a mainstream school and in a resource centre. Sixty nine educators were divided into two groups:48 educators taught at a mainstream school (Group 1) and 21 educators teach at a resource center (remedial school) and deal with ADHD cases regularly (Group 2).A questionnaire was given to each responded as a method of data collection instrument. xiv The study concludes that mainstream education for ADHD children (with individualized education if necessary) causes considerable difficulty for all concerned. The educators’ attitudes towards ADHD children were far from ideal, and their knowledge is insufficient. One interesting finding from this study was that knowledge of Special Education seems to have a positive influence on the educators’ attitude towards learners with ADHD.

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a commonly diagnosed disorder that is associated with many negative outcomes. For many children, the disorder is comorbid with externalizing and/or internalizing problems. Understanding the correlates of comorbid problems in children with ADHD could be important for better treatment and/or prevention strategies. The purposes of this study were (a) to determine what parent-related and child-related characteristics are associated with externalizing or internalizing problems in children with ADHD, and (b) to determine if there are differences in these characteristics between a group of children with ADHD and externalizing problems, and a group of children with ADHD and externalizing and internalizing problems. Results indicated that parent anxiety, parent aggression, and child hostility were associated with internalizing problems. Child aggression was associated with externalizing problems. Results also indicated that children with ADHD and externalizing and internalizing problems had significantly more hostility than children with ADHD and externalizing problems only.

This study examined the psychometric properties of a new measure of attention-deficit/hyperactive disorder (ADHD) symptoms , the Boatwright-Bracken Child Attention Deficit Scale (BCADS), self- and parent-report forms. Parents and children with and without ADHD completed the BCADS to determine the reliability and validity of the BCADS . The BCADS-Child and Parent had high internal consistency reliability . The total sample parent-selfratings were moderately correlated, indicating a typical level of cross informant agreement. Results indicate that the BCADS differentiates children with ADHD from children without ADHD. Children and parents in the clinical sample reported more symptoms of ADHD than those in the comparison sample. Children with and without ADHD reported fewer symptoms of ADHD than their parents. Parents' ratings on the BCADS were moderately to highly correlated with an existing measure of ADHD. Overall, the results indicate the BCADS-Child and Parent forms are internally reliable and valid measures to use when assessing ADHD.