There has always been a challenge for designing structures against extreme dynamic loads. Blast loading falls under these loads category and blast resistant design has been gaining more interest during the past decade. Among different types of structures, Reinforced Concrete (RC) structures are usually recommended to be used for blast resistant design. However, the nonlinearities associated with these structures make their accurate analysis complicated. Therefore, simplified techniques have been introduced for nonlinear dynamic analysis of these structures. This study focuses on developing simplified computational strategies for the dynamic analysis of blast loaded RC elements including beams, panels/slabs and columns. For RC beams, the basis for commonly used Single-Degree-of-Freedom (SDOF) models has been outlined. A Multi-Degrees-of-Freedom (MDOF) model which takes into account the concrete nonlinear properties has been developed and the effect of varying the number of degrees-of-freedom (DOF) on response has been studied. Results showed that increasing the number of DOF affects the pressure-impulse (P-I) diagrams, especially in the impulsive regime, as the extent of damage increased. In addition, the model was compared with the experimental data and showed good agreement. For RC panels, a SDOF technique, based on the US Army Technical Manual TMS-1300 instructions, was constructed and results were compared with the ones obtained from explicit Finite Element (FE) analysis. Compared to the FE results, SDOF model yielded conservative predictions for deflection but it usually underestimated the dynamic reactions. A modification for reaction calculation was proposed which resulted in significantly better prediction of the reaction for the impulsive range of loading. Finally, considering the important role of columns in providing the overall stability of the structure, a MDOF model was developed for RC columns and the load carrying capacity of the columns was investigated for different levels of axial load, strain rate and damage. Increasing the strain rate enhanced the column's cross section properties whereas increasing the levels of axial load reduced the cross section curvature and the column deflection capacities. Results also showed that good detailing at the supports can significantly improve the load carrying capacity of RC columns. / Thesis / Master of Applied Science (MASc)

Recent terrorist attacks and accidental explosions have prompted increased interest in the blast resistant design of high-risk facilities, including government offices, private sector buildings, transportation terminals, sporting venues, and military facilities. Current blast resistant design standards prioritize the protection of the primary structural system, such as walls, columns, and beams, to prevent a disproportionate collapse of the entire structure. Secondary structural systems and non-structural components, such as blast resistant doors, are typically outside the focus of standard building design. Components such as blast resistant doors are designed and manufactured by private sector entities, and their details are confidential and considered proprietary business information. For this reason, scientific research on blast resistant doors is sparse and most test results are unavailable for public consumption. Nevertheless, the performance of blast doors is crucial to the survival of building occupants as they are relied upon to contain blast pressures and remain operable after a blast event to allow ingress/egress. These important roles highlight the critical need for further research and development to enhance the level of protection provided by components that are often not considered in any detail by protective design practice. This thesis presents a combined experimental and analytical research program intended to support the development of blast resistant hollow metal doors. A total of 18 static beam-assembly tests were conducted, which consisted of the flexural four-point bending of door segments, to inform on the performance characteristics of full-sized blast resistant doors. Six tests were conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of three skin-core construction methodologies, which consisted of one epoxy and two weld attachment specifications, between door skins and their internal reinforcing structures. The remaining 12 tests were performed to evaluate the in-situ performance of hinge hardware typically installed on blast resistant door assemblies. The results of the skin-core construction tests demonstrated that closely spaced weld patterns would provide the best blast performance. The results of the hinge hardware tests demonstrated that hinges which provided a continuous load-path directly into the primary ii structural core elements of the door frame and door were ideal; furthermore, robust hinges with fully-welded or continuous knuckles were best suited for limiting undesirable deformations. A semi-empirical analytical methodology was developed to predict the global deformation response of full-sized hollow metal doors subjected to blast loading in the seated direction. The goal was to provide practicing engineers who are competent but non-expert users of high fidelity simulations with the flexibility to conduct in-house evaluation of the blast resistance of hollow metal doors without having to conduct live explosive or simulated blast tests. A finite element analysis was first performed to compute the door resistance function. Hollow metal door construction was idealized using a bulk material sandwiched between sheet metal skins and internally stiffened by stringers. The properties of the bulk material were calibrated such that the deformability of the idealized core reasonably approximated the global load-deformation behavior which occurs due to loss of composite action when welds fail. The resistance curves were then used in a singledegree-of-freedom dynamic analysis to predict the displacement response of the door subjected to blast loading. The proposed methodology was first validated against the static beam-assembly flexural tests. It was then extended to the case of a full-sized door subjected to shock tube blast testing using results published in the literature. The proposed methodology was found to reasonably approximate the out-of-plane load-deformation response of beam-assemblies and full-size doors, provided the bulk material properties of the idealized core are calibrated against experimental data. Finally, the new Virginia Tech Shock Tube Testing Facility was introduced. A description of the facility, including an overview of the shock tube's location, construction, main components, instrumentation, and key operating principles, were discussed. Operating guidelines and procedures were outlined to ensure safe, controlled, and repeated blast testing operations. A detailed calibration plan was proposed, and future work pertaining to the development of blast resistant hollow metal doors was presented. / Master of Science / Recent terrorist attacks and accidental explosions have motivated an increase in the demand for blast protection of critical infrastructure. Secondary components, such as doors, play a pivotal role in the protection of occupants as they ensure blast pressures are contained and ingress/egress is possible after a blast event. Experiments have been conducted to characterize the performance of several door construction methodologies (i.e., epoxy, reduced weld requirements) and the in-situ performance of hinge hardware through quasi-static testing of beams whose construction closely mimics that of a full-size door. Results of door construction testing indicated that, whenever possible, blast resistant doors should be constructed with full weld attachment (maximum specification with weld spaced every 3”) as these doors were found to provide the greatest resistance. Due to inconsistent and sudden failure mode, epoxy skin-core construction is not recommended for use in blast resistant doors at this time. Hinge testing determined that hinge mounting plates (which hinge hardware leaves are attached to) should be integrally connected to the frame and door internal reinforcing elements to provide adequate strength and that hinges with fully welded knuckles should be used for blast applications to limit deformation and facilitate post-blast operability. An ABAQUS finite element analysis methodology utilizing a “skins and stringers” approach to generate a beam-assembly model resulted in an adequate prediction of load deflection results recorded during beam-assembly testing after calibration of the model. An extension of this modeling approach was used to model full-size doors and adequately captured their dynamic performance when subjected to blast loading. Finally, preparation of the Virginia Tech Shock Tube Testing Facility, which is currently in progress, is summarized with regards to its calibration and the first round of testing which will focus on providing more data for comparison with the analysis methodology developed in this research.

Yes / Steel wire reinforced ultra-high performance concrete (SWRUHPC) offers exceptional resistance to impacts and blast, making it a promising construction material for infrastructure with blast-resistance demands. However, limited research has been conducted on the blast-resistance characteristics and design of SWRUHPC elements under blast loading, particularly in considering multiple influencing parameters and levels. Therefore, this study employed finite element simulation methods to investigate the influence of scaled distance (Z), reinforcement ratio (ρ) and slab thickness (D) as well as slab length (L) on the failure mode and maximum deflection of SWRUHPC slabs. Range analysis and variance analysis methods were used to quantitively analyze the effects of various factors on the blast resistance performance, culminating in the proposal of a design formula for SWRUHPC slabs. The results demonstrated that SWRUHPC exhibits superior blast resistance compared to ordinary concrete, effectively reducing the occurrence of concrete spalling and splashing, thus enhancing overall structural resilience in blast scenarios. Among the four factors analyzed, their influence on maximum deflection follows this order: D > Z > ρ > L. Notably, the maximum deflection decreases by 82% when the slab thickness increases from 40 mm to 90 mm. Additionally, the established design formula for SWRUHPC slabs under different scaled distances shows good agreement with the numerical simulation results, offering valuable design guidelines for SWRUHPC slabs in protective engineering structures. / National Science Foundation of China (52308236 and 52368031), and the Major Science and Technology Research Project of the China Building Materials Federation (2023JBGS10-02), Natural Science Joint Foundation of Liaoning Province (2023-BSBA-077), and the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (DUT24GJ202). / The full text will be available at the end of the publisher's embargo: 22nd July 2025

A method to estimate blast-induced damage in rock considering both stress waves and gas expansion phases is presented. The method was developed by assuming a strong correlation between blast-induced damage and stress wave amplitudes, and also by adapting a 2D numerical method to estimate damage in a 3D real case. The numerical method is used to determine stress wave damage and provides an indication of zones prone to suffer greater damage by gas expansion. The specific steps carried out in this study are: i) extensive blast monitoring in hard rock at surface and underground test sites; ii) analysis of seismic waveforms in terms of amplitude and frequency and their azimuthal distribution with respect to borehole axis, iii) measurement of blast-induced damage from single-hole blasts; iv) assessment and implementation of method to utilize 2D numerical model to predict blast damage in 3D situation; v) use of experimental and numerical results to estimate relative contribution of stress waves and gas penetration to damage, and vi) monitoring and modeling of full-scale production blasts to apply developed method to estimate blast-induced damage from stress waves. The main findings in this study are: i) both P and S-waves are generated and show comparable amplitudes by blasting in boreholes; ii) amplitude and frequency of seismic waves are strongly dependent on initiation mode and direction of propagation of explosive reaction in borehole; iii) in-situ measurements indicate strongly non-symmetrical damage dependent on confinement conditions and initiation mode, and existing rock structure, and iv) gas penetration seems to be mainly responsible for damage (significant damage extension 2-4 borehole diameters from stress waves; > 22 from gas expansion). The method has the potential for application in regular production blasts for control of over-breaks and dilution in operating mines. The main areas proposed for future work are: i) verification of seismic velocity changes in rock by blast-induced damage from controlled experiments; ii) incorporation of gas expansion phase into numerical models; iii) use of 3D numerical model and verification of crack distribution prediction; iv) further studies on strain rate dependency of material strength parameters, and v) accurate measurements of in-hole pressure function considering various confinement conditions.

A method to estimate blast-induced damage in rock considering both stress waves and gas expansion phases is presented. The method was developed by assuming a strong correlation between blast-induced damage and stress wave amplitudes, and also by adapting a 2D numerical method to estimate damage in a 3D real case. The numerical method is used to determine stress wave damage and provides an indication of zones prone to suffer greater damage by gas expansion. The specific steps carried out in this study are: i) extensive blast monitoring in hard rock at surface and underground test sites; ii) analysis of seismic waveforms in terms of amplitude and frequency and their azimuthal distribution with respect to borehole axis, iii) measurement of blast-induced damage from single-hole blasts; iv) assessment and implementation of method to utilize 2D numerical model to predict blast damage in 3D situation; v) use of experimental and numerical results to estimate relative contribution of stress waves and gas penetration to damage, and vi) monitoring and modeling of full-scale production blasts to apply developed method to estimate blast-induced damage from stress waves. The main findings in this study are: i) both P and S-waves are generated and show comparable amplitudes by blasting in boreholes; ii) amplitude and frequency of seismic waves are strongly dependent on initiation mode and direction of propagation of explosive reaction in borehole; iii) in-situ measurements indicate strongly non-symmetrical damage dependent on confinement conditions and initiation mode, and existing rock structure, and iv) gas penetration seems to be mainly responsible for damage (significant damage extension 2-4 borehole diameters from stress waves; > 22 from gas expansion). The method has the potential for application in regular production blasts for control of over-breaks and dilution in operating mines. The main areas proposed for future work are: i) verification of seismic velocity changes in rock by blast-induced damage from controlled experiments; ii) incorporation of gas expansion phase into numerical models; iii) use of 3D numerical model and verification of crack distribution prediction; iv) further studies on strain rate dependency of material strength parameters, and v) accurate measurements of in-hole pressure function considering various confinement conditions.

Fly ash and blast furnace slag are the two major industrial solid by-products generated in most countries including India. Although their utilization rate has increased in the recent years, still huge quantities of these material remain unused and are stored or disposed of consuming large land area involving huge costs apart from causing environmental problems. Environmentally safe disposal of Fly ash is much more troublesome because of its ever increasing quantity and its nature compared to blast furnace slag. Bulk utilization of these materials which is essentially possible in civil engineering in general and more particular in geotechnical engineering can provide a relief to environmental problems apart from having economic benefit. One of the important aspects of these waste materials is that they improve physical and mechanical properties with time and can be enhanced to a significant level by activating with chemical additives like lime and cement. Class-C Fly ashes which have sufficient lime are well utilized but class-F Fly ashes account for a considerable portion that is disposed of due to their low chemical reactivity. Blast furnace slag in granulated form is used as a replacement for sand to conserve the fast declining natural source. The granulated blast furnace slag (GBS) is further ground to enhance its pozzolanic nature. If GBS is activated by chemical means rather than grinding, it can provide a good economical option and enhance its utilization potential as well. GGBS is latent hydraulic cement and is mostly utilized in cement and concrete industries. Most uses of these materials are due to their pozzolanic reactivity. Though Fly ash and GGBS are pozzolanic materials, there is a considerable difference in their chemical composition. For optimal pozzolanic reactivity, sufficient lime and silica should be available in desired proportions. Generally, Fly ash has higher silica (SiO2) content whereas GGBS is rich in lime (CaO) content. Combining these two industrial wastes in the right proportion may be more beneficial compared to using them individually. The main objective of the thesis has been to evaluate the suitability of the class-F Fly ash/GGBS mixtures with as high Fly ash contents for Geotechnical and Geo-environmental applications. For this purpose, sufficient amount of class-F Fly ash and GGBS were collected and their mixtures were tested in the laboratory for analyzing their mechanical behavior. The experimental program included the evaluation of mechanical properties such as compaction, strength, compressibility of the Fly ash/GGBS mixtures at different proportions with GGBS content varying from 10 to 40 percent. An external agent such as chemical additives like lime or cement is required to accelerate the hydration and pozzolanic reactions in both these materials. Hence, addition of varying percentages of lime is also considered. However, these studies are not extended to chemically activate GBS and only GGBS is used in the present study. Unconfined compressive strength tests have been carried out on various Fly ash/ GGBS mixtures at different proportions at different curing periods. The test results demonstrated rise in strength with increase in GGBS content and with 30 and 40 percent of GGBS addition, the mixture showed higher strength than either of the components i.e. Fly ash or GGBS after sufficient curing periods. Addition of small amount of lime increased the strength tremendously which indicated the occurrence of stronger cementitious reactions in the Fly ash/GGBS mixtures than in samples containing only Fly ash. Improvement of the strength of the Fly ash/GGBS mixtures was explained through micro-structural and mineralogical studies. The microstructure and mineralogical studies of the original and the stabilized samples were investigated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-Ray diffraction techniques respectively. These studies together showed the formation of cementitious compounds such as C-S-H, responsible for imparting strength to the pozzolanic materials, is better in the mixture containing 30 and 40 percent of GGBS content than in individual components. Resilient and permanent deformation behavior on an optimized mix sample of Fly ash and GGBS cured for 7 day curing period has been studied. The Resilient Modulus (Mr) is a measure of subgrade material stiffness and is actually an estimate of its modulus of elasticity (E). The permanent deformation behavior is also important in predicting the performance of the pavements particularly in thin pavements encountered mainly in rural and low volume roads. The higher resilient modulus values indicated its suitability for use as subgrade or sub-base materials in pavement construction. Permanent axial strain was found to increase with the number of load cycles and accumulation of plastic strain in the sample reduced with the increase in confining pressure. Consolidation tests were carried on Fly ash/GGBS mixtures using conventional oedometer to assess their volume stability. However, such materials develop increased strength with time and conventional rate of 24 hour as duration of load increment which requires considerable time to complete the test is not suitable to assess their volume change behavior in initial stages. An attempt was thus made to reduce the duration of load increment so as to reflect the true compressibility characteristics of the material as close as possible. By comparing the compressibility behavior of Fly ash and GGBS between conventional 24 hour and 30 minutes duration of load increment, it was found that 30 minutes was sufficient to assess the compressibility characteristics due to the higher rate of consolidation. The results indicated the compressibility of the Fly ash/GGBS mixtures slightly decreases initially but increase with increase in GGBS content. Addition of lime did not have any significant effect on the compressibility characteristics since the pozzolanic reaction, which is a time dependent process and as such could not influence due to very low duration of loading. Results were also represented in terms of constrained modulus which is a most commonly used parameter for the determination of settlement under one dimensional compression tests. It was found that tangent constrained modulus showed higher values only at higher amounts of GGBS. It was also concluded that settlement analysis can also be done by taking into account the constrained modulus. The low values of compression and recompression indices suggested that settlements on the embankments and fills (and the structures built upon these) will be immediate and minimal when these mixtures are used. In addition to geotechnical applications of Fly ash/GGBS mixture, their use for the removal of heavy metals for contaminated soils was also explored. Batch equilibrium tests at different pH and time intervals were conducted with Fly ash and Fly ash/GGBS mixture at a proportion of 70:30 by weight as adsorbents to adsorb lead ions. It was found that though uptake of lead by Fly ash itself was high, it increased further in the presence of GGBS. Also, the removal of lead ions increased with increase in pH of the solution but decreases at very high pH. The retention of lead ions by sorbents at higher pH was due to its precipitation as hydroxide. Results of the adsorption kinetics showed that the reaction involving removal of lead by both the adsorbents follow second-order kinetics. One of the major problems which geotechnical engineers often face is construction of foundations on expansive soils. Though stabilization of expansive soils with lime or cement is well established, the use of by-product materials such as Fly ash and blast furnace slag to achieve economy and reduce the disposal problem needs to be explored. To stabilize the soil, binder comprising of Fly ash and GGBS in the ratio of 70:30 was used. Different percentages of binder with respect to the soil were incorporated to the expansive soil and changes in the physical and engineering properties of the soil were examined. Small addition of lime was also considered to enhance the pozzolanic reactions by increasing the pH. It was found that liquid limit, plasticity index, swell potential and swell pressure of the expansive soil decreased considerably while the strength increased with the addition of binder. The effect was more pronounced with the addition of lime. Swell potential and swell pressure reduced significantly in the presence of lime. Based on the results, it can be concluded that the expansive soils can be successfully stabilized with the Fly ash-GGBS based binder with small addition of lime. This is also more advantageous in terms of lime requirement which is typically high when Fly ash, class-F in particular, is used alone to stabilize expansive soils. Based on the studies carried out in the present work, it is established that combination of Fly ash and GGBS can be advantageous as compared to using them separately for various geotechnical applications such as for construction of embankments/fills, stabilization of expansive soils etc. with very small amount of lime. Further, these mixtures have better potential for geo-environmental applications such as decontamination of soil. However, it is still a challenge to activate GBS without grinding.

It is important to ensure that vulnerable structures (federal and provincial offices, military structures, embassies, etc) are blast resistant to safeguard life and critical infrastructure. In the wake of recent malicious attacks and accidental explosions, it is becoming increasingly important to ensure that columns in structures are properly detailed to provide the ductility and continuity necessary to prevent progressive collapse. Research has shown that steel fibre reinforced concrete (SFRC) can enhance many of the properties of concrete, including improved post-cracking tensile capacity, enhanced shear resistance, and increased ductility. The enhanced properties of SFRC make it an ideal candidate for use in the blast resistant design of structures. There is limited research on the behaviour of SFRC under high strain rates, including impact and blast loading, and some of this data is conflicting, with some researchers showing that the additional ductility normally evident in SFRC is absent or reduced at high strain loading. On the other hand, other data indicates that SFRC can improve toughness and energy-absorption capacity under extreme loading conditions. This thesis presents the results of experimental research involving tests of scaled reinforced concrete columns exposed to shock wave induced impulsive loads using the University of Ottawa Shock Tube. A total of 13 half-scale steel fibre reinforced concrete columns, 8 with normal strength steel fibre reinforced concrete (SFRC) and 5 with an ultra high performance fibre reinforced concrete (UHPFRC), were constructed and tested under simulated blast pressures. The columns were designed according to CSA A23.3 standards for both seismic and non-seismic regions, using various fibre amounts and types. Each column was exposed to similar shock wave loads in order to provide direct comparisons between seismic and non-seismically detailed columns, amount of steel fibres, type of steel fibres, and type of concrete. The dynamic response of the columns tested in the experimental program is predicted by generating dynamic load-deformation resistance functions for SFRC and UHPFRC columns and using single degree of freedom dynamic analysis software, RCBlast. The analytical results are compared to experimental data, and shown to accurately predict the maximum mid-span displacements of the fibre reinforced concrete columns under shock wave loading.

It is important to ensure that vulnerable structures (federal and provincial offices, military structures, embassies, etc) are blast resistant to safeguard life and critical infrastructure. In the wake of recent malicious attacks and accidental explosions, it is becoming increasingly important to ensure that columns in structures are properly detailed to provide the ductility and continuity necessary to prevent progressive collapse. Research has shown that steel fibre reinforced concrete (SFRC) can enhance many of the properties of concrete, including improved post-cracking tensile capacity, enhanced shear resistance, and increased ductility. The enhanced properties of SFRC make it an ideal candidate for use in the blast resistant design of structures. There is limited research on the behaviour of SFRC under high strain rates, including impact and blast loading, and some of this data is conflicting, with some researchers showing that the additional ductility normally evident in SFRC is absent or reduced at high strain loading. On the other hand, other data indicates that SFRC can improve toughness and energy-absorption capacity under extreme loading conditions. This thesis presents the results of experimental research involving tests of scaled reinforced concrete columns exposed to shock wave induced impulsive loads using the University of Ottawa Shock Tube. A total of 13 half-scale steel fibre reinforced concrete columns, 8 with normal strength steel fibre reinforced concrete (SFRC) and 5 with an ultra high performance fibre reinforced concrete (UHPFRC), were constructed and tested under simulated blast pressures. The columns were designed according to CSA A23.3 standards for both seismic and non-seismic regions, using various fibre amounts and types. Each column was exposed to similar shock wave loads in order to provide direct comparisons between seismic and non-seismically detailed columns, amount of steel fibres, type of steel fibres, and type of concrete. The dynamic response of the columns tested in the experimental program is predicted by generating dynamic load-deformation resistance functions for SFRC and UHPFRC columns and using single degree of freedom dynamic analysis software, RCBlast. The analytical results are compared to experimental data, and shown to accurately predict the maximum mid-span displacements of the fibre reinforced concrete columns under shock wave loading.

This thesis recounts the experimental study of the dynamic response of polycarbonate blast resistant glazing systems to explosive loading through the use of triaxial load cells, pressure sensors, and a laser displacement gauge. This instrumentation captured the response of the glazing systems to blast loading over three phases of testing. The first phase of testing characterizes the load distribution around the perimeter and the second phase examines the repeatability of the results. The final phase of testing pushes the samples to failure. The results are then compared to HazL, a commonly used blast resistant glazing system analysis software tool. The experimental data is also compared to data available characterizing the response of laminated glass.

Terrorism has become a serious threat in the world, with bomb attacks carried out both inside and outside buildings. There are already many unreinforced masonry buildings in existence, and some of them are historical buildings. However, they do not perform well under blast loading. Aiming on protecting masonry buildings, retrofitting techniques were developed. Some experimental work on studying the effect of retrofitted URM walls has been done in recent years; however, these tests usually cost a significant amount of time and funds. Because of this, numerical simulation has become a good alternative, and can be used to study the behaviour of masonry structures, and predict the outcomes of experimental tests. This project was carried out to find efficient retrofitting technique under blast loading by developing numerical material models. It was based on experimental research of strengthening URM walls by using retrofitting technologies under out-of-plane loading at the University of Adelaide. The numerical models can be applied to study large-scaled structures under static loading, and the research work is then extended to the field of blast loading. Aiming on deriving efficient material models, homogenization technology was introduced to this research. Fifty cases of numerical analysis on masonry basic cell were conducted to derive equivalent orthotropic material properties. To study the increasing capability in strength and ductility of retrofitted URM walls, pull-tests were simulated using interface element model to investigate the bond-slip relationship of FRP plates bonded to masonry blocks. The interface element model was then used to simulate performance of retrofitted URM walls under static loads. The accuracy of the numerical results was verified by comparing with the experimental results from previous tests at the University of Adelaide by Griffith et al. (2007) on unreinforced masonry walls and by Yang (2007) on FRP retrofitted masonry walls. To study the de-bonding behaviours of retrofits bonded to masonry, and find appropriate solution to protect certain masonry walls against blast loading, various retrofitting technologies were examined. The simulation covers explosive impacts of a wide range of impulses. Based on this work, pressure-impulse diagrams for different types of retrofitted URM walls were developed as a design guideline for estimating the blast effect on retrofitted masonry walls. The outcomes of this research will contribute to the development of numerical simulation on modelling retrofitted URM walls, improving the technique for explosion-resistant of masonry buildings, and providing a type of guideline for blast-resistant design. / http://proxy.library.adelaide.edu.au/login?url= http://library.adelaide.edu.au/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=1349719 / Thesis (M.Eng.Sc.) - University of Adelaide, School of Civil, Environmental and Mining Engineering, 2009