Wood is a natural raw material, and would hardly be considered a risk to the environment. However, the handling of wood materials on an industrial scale has been shown to have a negative impact on water bodies that run-off from industrial sites that process wood-based materials. Most investigations related to water pollution from wood-based industries have focused on large industrial sites such as pulp and paper mills. The goal of the present thesisis to understand better such environmental problems and treatment solutions that occur at most wood handling sites. Where there are large outdoor storage areas for logs and sawdust that are exposed to rainfall or irrigation, such as the wooden-floor and bio-energy sectors. Leachate generated by the contact of water with wood in storage areas contains a large amount of organic matter that is potentially hazardous to water bodies that receive run-off from the site. It has been found that different wood species yield different leachate compositions, with leachate from oak having the highest pollutants content, followed by leachate from pine. This investigation shows that oak has the potential to leach about 10 times the amount of polyphenols compared with other investigated species (i.e., pine, beech and maple). Furthermore, oak leachates have the lowest ratio of biological oxygen demand at 7 days tochemical oxygen demand (0.12), which suggests a potential problem with the biological degradation of this leachate. It has also been shown that leachate from wood are potentially toxic to aquatic organisms. Treatability studies with the aim of reducing the environmental impact of wood leachate were conducted on a pilot scale as part of the scope of this thesis. The results showed, among other options, the possibility of using constructed wetlands to treat leachate. It was found that plants and aeration can affect the performance of a wetland. However, the most important factor is the time water spends in the wetland. Filter material that could be used to absorb leachate was also studied. A filter consisting of a mixture of peat and ash (from incinerated organic matter), was used to absorb a specific chemical group (polyphenols) in the leachate. It was also shown that polyphenols are vulnerable to ozone, representing a third viable treatment process. / Trä är ett naturligt råmaterial som knappast anses vara en risk för miljön. Däremot har hanteringen av trämaterial i industriell skala visat sig ha negativ inverkan på vattendrag. De flesta utredningar avseende vattenföroreningar inom träbaserade industrier har fokuserat på stora industrier med stor vattenförbrukning så som massa- och pappersbruk. Lakvatten som alstras vid kontakten mellan vatten och trä innehåller höga halter av organiska ämnen som är potentiellt farliga för vattendrag. Målet med denna avhandling är att få kunskap om ovanstående miljöproblem och möjlig behandlingar av dessa. Förorenat lakvatten skapas av industrier, där stora mängder timmer och sågspån är placerade utomhus och utsätts för regn och bevattning, såsom inom trägolv och bioenergisektorn. Man har funnit att lakning från olika träslag ger olika sammansättningar på lakvattnet, där lakvatten från ek har den högsta halten av föroreningar följt av furu. Denna undersökning visar att ek har potential att laka ut tio gånger så mycket polyfenoler jämfört med andra undersökta arter (tall, bok och lönn). Dessutom har lakvatten från ek den lägsta andelen av biologisk syreförbrukning efter 7dagar per kemisk syreförbrukning (0,12), vilket tyder på ett potentiellt problem med den biologiska nedbrytningen av detta lakvatten. Man har även påvisat att lakvattnet från trä är potentiellt giftigt för akvatiska organismer. Studier för att försöka minska miljöpåverkan av lakvatten från denna trädsort gjordes i pilotskala inom ramen för denna avhandling. Dessa studier visade bland annat på möjligheterna att använda sig av våtmarker som reningsmetod, där växter och luftning påverkar hur bra en våtmark fungerar. Men den viktigaste faktorn var den ökade uppehållstiden som vattnet får i våtmarken. Utöver studier av våtmarker har också ett filtermaterial studerats, filtret bestod av en blandning av torv och aska, som användes för att absorbera en specifik kemisk grupp i lakvattnet (polyfenoler). I en tredje typ av behandlingsprocess visade det sig också att polyfenoler effektivt kan brytas ned av ozon.

A presente pesquisa abordou o estudo em escala real do tratamento de lixiviado de aterro sanitário em um sistema composto por dois filtros anaeróbios seguidos de dois banhados construídos. O trabalho foi desenvolvido na estação de tratamento de lixiviado do aterro sanitário pertencente à Central de Resíduos do Recreio, localizada em Minas do Leão/RS. Pretendeu-se verificar a eficiência do sistema na remoção de matéria orgânica e de nitrogênio amoniacal. A fase 1 da pesquisa, que avaliou o desempenho dos filtros anaeróbios quando operados em série, indicou que a quase totalidade da remoção de matéria orgânica facilmente biodegradável ocorreu no primeiro filtro, evidenciando que, para o tratamento do lixiviado em questão, não é interessante a utilização de dois filtros anaeróbios de fluxo ascendente semelhantes em série. A fase 2 avaliou o desempenho dos filtros anaeróbios operados em paralelo e dos banhados construídos. Foi possível concluir-se que: filtros anaeróbios de fluxo ascendente são excelente alternativa para o tratamento de lixiviado de aterro sanitário, pois podem viabilizar remoções de matéria orgânica superiores a 50%; banhados construídos representam uma ecotecnologia interessante para o complemento do tratamento de lixiviado, pois podem viabilizar elevadas remoções de N-amoniacal. / This study discussed the sanitary landfill leachate treatment in a full scale system composed by two upflow anaerobic filters followed by two constructed wetlands. The research was developed at the landfill leachate treatment station owned by Recreio Central Waste, located in Minas do Leão/RS. The objective of the study was to verify the efficiency of the system in the removal of organic matter and ammonia nitrogen. The phase 1 of the study, which evaluated the performance of anaerobic filters when operated in series, indicated that almost all of the removal of organic matter readily biodegradable occurred in the first filter, showing that, for the treatment of leachate concerned, it is not interesting the use of two similar upflow anaerobic filters in series. The phase 2 assessed the performance of the anaerobic filters, operated in parallel, and the constructed wetlands. It could be concluded that: upflow anaerobic filters are excellent alternative for the sanitary landfill leachate treatment, as they may facilitate removal of organic matter greater than 50%; constructed wetlands represent an interesting eco-technology to complement the leachate treatment, which can enable high removals of N-ammonia.

A utilização de sistemas de alagados construídos (SACs), como alternativa para o tratamento de diversos tipos de efluentes, tem sido objeto de diversos estudos devido as suas vantagens: baixo custo de implantação e manutenção, ausência de odores, boa qualidade de efluente final e poder paisagístico. O presente estudo teve como finalidade implantar e monitorar um SAC híbrido, em escala piloto, composto por uma unidade contínua subsuperficial de fluxo horizontal (SFH) seguido por uma unidade intermitente subsuperficial de fluxo vertical (SFV) com recirculação. A vegetação utilizada foi a Canna x generalis, popularmente conhecido com Biri, visando o tratamento de água negra simulada pré tratada por reator UASB. Foram implantados na estação de tratamento de esgoto Monjolinho, da cidade de São Carlos – SP. Foram utilizados tempos de detenção hidráulico (TDH) de 1, 2 e 3 dias para o SAC SFH, e o monitoramento do experimento durou, aproximadamente, 6 meses consecutivos. Avaliou-se parâmetros físico-químicos, eficiências de remoção de material orgânico, nutrientes e microrganismos, além da avaliação da presença de antibióticos no efluente. A espécie plantada se adaptou bem às condições ambientais, mostrando-se viável seu uso em SACs. O sistema de tratamento foi responsável, em média, por remoção de 71,4 % de DQO, 73,1% de DBO, 41,3% de carbono orgânico total, 32,1% de N total, 30,9% de N amoniacal, 47,4% de P total e 47,3% de ortofosfato. A remoção de coliformes totais variou de 0 a 2 unidades logarítmicas, e a de Escherichia coli de 0 a 3,5 unidades logarítmicas. A elevação do TDH e a diminuição das taxas de aplicação hidráulica, influenciaram positivamente na eficiência de remoção, principalmente, dos nutrientes e dos coliformes totais. Apenas o antibiótico ciprofloxacina teve sua presença confirmada no afluente do ponto de amostragem da entrada do SAC SFH, com média de concentração de 442,6 ng/L. Supostamente há um mecanismo de remoção de antibióticos ocorrendo nos SACs, devido à presença desse analito apenas no seu afluente, se tornando um potencial para experimentos futuros sobre remoção de antibióticos. Tais resultados mostraram o SAC como uma alternativa promissora para o pós tratamento de efluente concentrado pré tratado anaerobiamente, oferecendo subsídios para planos de saneamento básico, principalmente em áreas descentralizadas, mas dependendo da utilização que se dará ao efluente após o tratamento, pode ser necessária a utilização de um processo de desinfecção. / The use of constructed wetlands systems (CWSs) as an alternative for the treatment of several types of wastewater have been the subject of studies due to its benefits: low cost of deployment and maintenance, absence of odors, good quality of the final effluent and landscaping application. The present study had the purpose to implement and monitor a pilot hybrid CWS composed of a continuous horizontal subsurface flow unit (HSF) followed by a vertical subsurface flow unit (VSF), with a recirculation. The vegetation used was Canna x generalis, popularly known as Biri. This system aimed the treatment of simulated black water pre-treated by UASB reactor, and it was deployed at the Monjolinho sewage treatment plant, in São Carlos – SP. Hydraulic retention times (HRT) of 1, 2 and 3 days were used for the HSF CWS, and the monitoring of the experiment lasted approximately 6 consecutive months. It was evaluated the physical-chemical parameters, the efficiency of removal of organic matter, nutrients and microrganisms, and the presence of antibiotics in the effluent. The specie planted showed a good adaptation to the environmental conditions, showing its viability in CWSs. On average, the treatment system was responsible for removal of 71.4% COD, 73.1% BOD, 41.3% total organic carbon, 32.1% total N, 30.9% N Ammonia, 47.4% of total P and 47.3% of orthophosphate. The total coliforms removal ranged from 0 to 2 log units and the Escherichia coli from 0 to 3.5 log units. The elevation of HRT and the decrease of hydraulic application rates, showed a positively influence on the removal efficiency, mainly of nutrients and total coliforms. Only the antibiotic ciprofloxacin was confirmed in the affluent of the input sampling point of CWS HSF, with a mean concentration of 442.6 ng/L. Supposedly there is a mechanism of antibiotic removal occurring in CWSs, due to the presence of this analyte only in its affluent, becoming a potential for future experiments on antibiotic removal. These results have shown the CWS as a promising alternative for post treatment of concentrated effluent anaerobically pre-treated, offering subsidies for basic sanitation plans, mainly in decentralized areas. However, depending on the use that will be given to the effluent after the treatment, it could be necessary to use a disinfection process.

A redução dos impactos da poluição difusa é ainda pouco explorada no Brasil, havendo ausência de critérios legais quanto à sua mitigação. Contudo, na esfera científica o seu impacto é reconhecido. Seguindo evidências de que há uma carência no tratamento de poluição difusa no país, este trabalho se propõe a analisar wetlands construídas como medidas de controle de poluição difusa, através de modelagens, para 4 áreas na bacia do córrego do Mineirinho. A exploração dessa proposta se deu por três abordagens paralelas. Na primeira, as wetlands foram projetadas para tratar o escoamento superficial de uma chuva crítica, de 61 minutos. Na segunda abordagem, foi utilizada uma chuva crítica de 24 horas de duração. Na terceira, utilizou-se o índice de precipitação anual. O escoamento superficial foi calculado conforme os coeficientes de runoff. Atribuíram-se valores de concentrações médias de evento para DBO e Fósforo aos tipos de uso e ocupação, obtendo-se concentrações médias nas águas pluviais a serem tratadas. O modelo P-k-C* foi empregado na primeira e terceira abordagens, para dimensionar os sistemas com base no desempenho de remoção de cargas. Os resultados obtidos demonstraram a aptidão dos sistemas em reduzir cargas e/ou concentrações na bacia, apresentando como principal limitação técnica o espaço demandado para sua implantação. Houve influência majoritária da infiltração na remoção de cargas, que agiu em conjunto com o decaimento de poluentes ao longo dos sistemas. Na primeira abordagem, o modelo P-k-C* apresentou limitações em prever o desempenho dos sistemas por não comportar vazões variáveis. A segunda abordagem foi a mais simples, baseada apenas no armazenamento do evento crítico, entretanto, há uma carência de relações empíricas traçadas experimentalmente para prever seu desempenho. A terceira abordagem se mostrou a mais adequada ao modelo P-k-C*, podendo ser aprimorada de duas formas: adaptações nas constantes cinéticas ou vazões equivalentes, a fim de descrever uma média anual de desempenho. Concluiu-se que wetlands construídas demonstram potencial para o tratamento de poluição difusa, porém há uma necessidade de estudos a fim de se adaptar as ferramentas de modelagem disponíveis. / Nonpoint source pollutions impacts are still a rarely explored theme in Brazil, in which there are no legal criteria for its treatment. Although, in the scientific sphere its impacts are well known. Following evidence that there is a lack of nonpoint source pollution treatment in Brazil, this study proposes to analyze constructed wetlands as a nonpoint source pollution control measure, through modelling, for four different areas in the Mineirinho stream watershed. This proposal was explored through three different approaches. At first, the wetlands were designed to threat a critic rainfall for flood estimation, with detailed hydrographs. On the second approach, the wetlands were design to fully contain a 24-hour critic rainfall. On the third approach, the wetlands were designed to treat the average annual rainfall. The runoff volumes were estimated by runoff coefficients, and event mean concentrations for BOD and TP were assigned to each source area, resulting in the stormwater quality estimation. The P-k-C* model was applied to calculate systems performance on the first and third approaches. The results showed the aptitude of the systems for reducing loads and concentrations in the watershed, although mainly limited by the availability of areas. Infiltration had a major hole in reducing loads, although there were also significant amounts of pollutant removed by the systems. At the first approach, the P-k-C* model presented limitations on describing stormwater treatment, because of its unsteady and intermittent characteristics. The second approach was the simplest, based on containing the whole runoff volume, but it also showed a lack of studies stablishing empiric relations to estimate its performance. The third approach was the most adequate to the P-k-C* model, which usage could be improved by two adaptations in its parameters: kinetic coefficient adaptations or the adoption of equivalent steady flows, to describe the annual wetland performance. The study concluded that constructed wetlands show great promise for treating nonpoint source pollution in the watershed, but there is a need of more studies to regionalize empiric solutions available in the scientific literature, to apply the designing techniques with greater precision.

The use of constructed wetlands and wet detention basins has proven to be highly effective in removing pollutants from industrial discharges and stormwater runoff throughout the world. This is attributed to design of the key treatment components in a constructed wetland, catchment source characteristics and climatic conditions. A disproportionate amount of research and monitoring effort has gone into constructed wetlands due to their cost effectiveness and ability to optimize multiple benefits. In Western Australia, several wetland monitoring studies on the role of constructed wetlands especially in Swan-Canning estuary have been done, but often do not address their design efficiencies in stormwater treatment. Two wetlands (Liege St and Tom Bateman wetland) constructed for nutrient stripping proximal to the Swan-Canning estuary have been monitored for two years. Liege St wetland was constructed to reduce the nutrients reaching the Canning River directly and improve the amenity value of the area. Similarly, Tom Bateman wetland was constructed to reduce nutrients of the Banister Creek catchment draining into the Canning River as well as for stormwater management and habitat use. Physicochemical and biological indicators were used to assess the nutrient stripping efficiency of the wetlands. In some cases, data from previous studies were used to determine the health and viability of the selected wetland sites. The limnological indicators used included; dissolved oxygen, pH, water temperature, electrical conductivity and nutrient levels. The biological included; bacteria, nutrients and chlorophyll in periphyton, macroinvertebrates and diatoms. Differences in the community structure of periphyton, macroinvertebrates and water quality were found from the inlet to the outlet in both Liege St and Tom Bateman wetlands. / Despite the poor water quality, Liege St wetland exhibited significant nutrient removal efficiencies for TP while Tom Bateman wetland had very high removal efficiency for TN. The TP removal in Liege St wetland was attributed to the design of key treatment components which included a gross pollutant trap, concrete lined sedimentation pond, vegetated sumplands, weirs and clay lining for the wetland bed. In contrast, Tom Bateman wetland lacked the above key treatment components. Additionally, the wetland experienced short-circuiting especially during high flow periods. The high TN removal in Tom Bateman wetland was attributed to assimilation by plants and micro-organisms especially by the dense growth of Potamogeton crispus observed on the wetland floor and the non- biological transformation processes such as volatilisation, sorption and sedimentation. The poor water quality of the inflow in both wetlands was attributed to catchment characteristics which were not fully investigated in this study. In an attempt to improve the nutrient stripping function of Liege St and Tom Bateman wetland, changes to the wetland design and routine maintenance were suggested for Tom Bateman and Liege St wetland respectively. Also the use of the Swan-Canning Cleanup Programe (SCCP) water quality targets as opposed to the ANZECC trigger values in water quality assessments in constructed wetlands in the Swan-Canning estuary is suggested among others.

"Figures, tables and the appendices appear in the volume II". Bibliography: leaves 130-152.

"Figures, tables and the appendices appear in the volume II". / Bibliography: leaves 130-152. / 2 v. (152 leaves, [5] leaves of plates; [75] leaves) : ill. (some col.), col. maps ; 30 cm. / Title page, contents and abstract only. The complete thesis in print form is available from the University Library. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Adelaide, Dept. of Botany, 2001

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Ohio State University, 2007. / Title from first page of PDF file. Includes bibliographical references (p. 206-221).

Treatment efficiency in a constructed wetland is related in part to the amount of time that a wastewater remains in the system. Current design methods idealize the system as a plug flow reactor and use a "residence time" based solely on the volume of the cell and the flow rate. Under this assumption, every element of wastewater entering the wetland cell experiences the same residence time. It is understood that this idealization ignores the existence of longitudinal dispersion, short circuiting and stagnant regions within the wetland cell. The result of these phenomena is a distribution of residence times. In other words, portions of the effluent exit the cell earlier than predicted, resulting in undertreatment, and portions exit late, resulting in excess treatment. The average concentration of treated wastewater at the outlet is a function of this distribution and the reaction kinetics associated with the waste. The overall effect of a distribution of residence times is reflected in a reduction of treatment efficiency at the outlet. Hydraulic regimes of constructed wetland systems were investigated at a pilot project site providing tertiary treatment of a pulp mill wastewater. Two vegetation types, bulrush and cattail, were investigated and compared to nonvegetated and rock-filter cells with identical configurations. Tracer studies used a fluorescent dye and were performed over the course of a year. Dye was input as a pulse at the inlet end of the cell and sampled over time at the outlet end to obtain concentration breakthrough curves. From these curves, time to peak, actual mean detention times, degree of dispersion, and extent of dead space were calculated, as well as predicted treatment efficiency. Results indicated varying degrees of dispersion, short circuiting, and dead space in the individual cells. Analysis of the residence time distributions provided estimates of the "active" volume of the treatment cell and the degree of short circuiting in the system. Effective volume of the planted cells ranged from 15 to 25% of full volume. Early arrivals of the peaks of the distributions, indicative of short circuiting, ranged from 30% to 80% of the theoretical detention times. A first order treatment model and a kinetic coefficient, k, were assumed, and corresponding treatment efficiencies were compared to the theoretical treatment of an ideal plug flow reactor. Reduced treatment efficiencies for the planted systems ranged from 2 to 20 %, by this estimation. Many references attempt to analyze wastewater treatment systems by refering to two models: dispersed plug flow and an approximation of tank-in-series. These models were investigated as potential descriptions of the hydraulic regime present in constructed wetlands. Residence time distributions of the constructed wetlands in this study indicated flow was not exclusively dispersed plug flow. This simplified model does not account for the exchange of material with "dead" space in the wetland cell. The data suggest a combination model of dispersed plug flow with a transient storage zone component may be more appropriate. / Graduation date: 1994

This thesis proposes a way in which architecture and the built environment might work to integrate human consciousness and natural process. A theoretical design entitled Landscope is presented as a responsive, sustainable landscape that offers understanding of nature through active observation, interpretation and transformation of the environment. The design proposal is situated at the edge of Hamilton Harbour, Ontario, Canada, adjacent to the existing facilities of the National Water Research Institute. Two extended studies accompany the design proposal. The first, Water, presents a poetic exploration of cosmic, responsive, and connective qualities of water relating to nature and technology. The second study, Connected Fields, focuses on the visionary American engineer Buckminster Fuller and his ‘Geoscope’ project, a geodesic dome designed to act as a monitoring and control centre for global material and resource flows. This section also includes a discussion of general conceptions of the world, focusing on key twentieth-century conceptions of the Biosphere, Gaia, and the Noösphere. Historical theories of environmental perception are discussed including Gestalt psychology and technical systems of observation. Drawing upon this cultural material, the thesis attempts to open boundaries that separate nature and technology, encouraging a complex, mutually dependent relationship between these traditionally separate realms. The general pursuit is a cybernetic and virtual model for environmental and ontological hybridity, involving an evolution of consciousness at both individual and global scales.