After hot rolling, the presense of segregation in the center of wire-rod can lead to a nonuniform transformation, resulting in bands of martensite in the microstructure. This is considered to be a defect, called center-martensite, because it can cause cracks and breaks during wire drawing. To identify the mechanism for the formation of center-martensite in wire-rod, the structure, macrosegregation and microsegregation in unworked billets were characterized. Based on measurements of secondary dendrite arm spacings, cooling rates during solidification were estimated. It appears that the macrosegregation of carbon and manganese in the billets manifests itself as the microsegregation in wire-rod, which is an agent in forming the center-martensite. Thus, electromagnetic stirring is proposed as a means to reduce the macrosegregation in the billet and, thereby, reduce the occurrence of center-martensite in wire-rod.

Thesis (M.Sc.)(Metallurgy)--University of Pretoria, 2004. / Includes summary. Includes bibliographical references.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-11T19:27:12Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2010-02-05Bitstream added on 2014-06-13T20:16:12Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 martins_ms_me_guara.pdf: 4378638 bytes, checksum: 5ab218d0c5345113e4a7e43df186b4af (MD5) / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / O presente trabalho tem por objetivo apresentar uma nova proposta de produção do aço para molas de válvulas para motores de combustão interna SAE 9258. Atualmente, este aço é produzido pela rota de lingotamento convencional, e pretende-se adotar o processo de lingotamento contínuo, mantendo-se todas as características mecânicas e metalúrgicas do aço produzido convencionalmente. Cuidados especiais durante o processo de refino secundário (fase líquida) foram levados em consideração para que sejam obtidas inclusões de silicatos deformáveis, essenciais para se conseguir uma vida em fadiga segura para as molas durante a vida útil do motor. Para avaliar essas características do aço foram feitas análises metalográficas da microestrutura em amostras na fase de processamento do aço (fio-máquina) e na fase final do processo (arames), realizados ensaios de tração, ensaios de fadiga axial em corpos-de-prova padronizados (ASTM E 466), ensaios de fadiga por flexão rotativa no arame (Nakamura test), ensaio de fadiga nas molas e análise das superfícies de fratura por fadiga com auxílio de microscopia eletrônica de varredura (MEV), para as duas rotas de produção (lingotamento convencional e contínuo). Os resultados obtidos mostram que não há diferenças com relação a microestrutura, propriedades mecânicas e comportamento em fadiga do aço na fase final de produção (arame) e na forma de produto (molas). Por outro lado, os resultados obtidos para o aço na fase intermediária do processamento (fiomáquina) mostram diferenças com relação à microestrutura, (presença de maior quantidade de carbonetos nas amostras do lingotamento contínuo), e menor redução de área com a consequente redução da resistência à fadiga. / This paper aims to present a new proposal for production of steel for valve springs for internal combustion engines SAE 9258. Currently this steel is produced by ingot casting route, and intended to adopt the continuous casting process, maintaining all the mechanical and metallurgical characteristics of the steel produced conventionally. Special attention during the process of refinement (liquid phase) were taken into account are obtained for silicate inclusions deformable essential to achieving a safe fatigue life for the springs during the life of the engine. To evaluate these features were made of steel metallographic analysis of microstructure in specimens during processing of steel (wire rod) and the final stage (wires) performed tensile tests, axial fatigue tests on specimens standard (ASTM E 466), fatigue tests in rotating bending on the wire (Nakamura test), the fatigue test the springs and examination of the areas of fatigue fracture with the aid of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) for the two production routes (ingot and continuous casting). The results show no differences with respect to microstructure, mechanical properties and fatigue behavior of steel in the final stages of production (wire) and the product form (spring). Moreover, the results obtained for steel in the intermediate stage of processing (wire rod) show differences from the microstructure (the larger amount of carbides in the samples of the continuous casting), lower area reduction with the consequent reduction resistance to fatigue.

Para a garantia do bom desempenho dos fluxantes para lingotamento contínuo de aços no molde, a determinação da sua composição química é importante para garantir as propriedades necessárias para o seu perfeito funcionamento. O carbono é adicionado ao fluxante para controlar a velocidade de fusão do fluxante sobre o aço líquido, já que, se adequada, colabora para a disponibilidade de escória líquida suficiente para alimentar o intervalo existente entre a placa de aço em solidificação e o molde, garantindo a perfeita lubrificação. Neste trabalho é demonstrada a influência do efeito de duas fontes de carbono na velocidade de fusão dos fluxantes, através da utilização de uma nova concepção de forno elétrico no qual são colocados dois cadinhos vazados contendo fluxante in natura. Um dos cadinhos é utilizado para avaliação da amostra de referência. O desenvolvimento das reações de fusão do fluxante com o aumento da temperatura resulta em uma escória que, em função de sua fluidez, gera o escorrimento da massa fundida a uma taxa característica, a qual é registrada em um gráfico de massa x temperatura. Desta forma, é demonstrada a eficiência do uso deste equipamento para avaliação da velocidade de fusão, e da influência da fonte e teor de carbono, possibilitando a avaliação de diferentes alternativas de composições. Os ensaios de microscopia com aquecimento e análises térmicas também foram utilizados. / In order to assure good performance of mould flux for continuous casting of steel, the chemical composition definition is important to guarantee the properties needs to its perfect behavior in the mould. Carbon is added to the mould flux to control the melting rate, since this property is related to the availability of liquid slag to fill in the gap between the solidified steel and the cupper wall that assure a perfect lubrication. This work presents the influence of two carbon sources evaluated by an apparatus designed for testing the melting rate of mould fluxes. It is an electric resistance furnace in which two perforated at the bottom crucibles contain flux sample in natura. One of the crucibles is used for the reference sample. As the temperature increases and the melting of the flux takes place, liquid slag starts dropping from the crucible, which is attached to a load cell. Weight losses and temperature are simultaneously recorded and a plot of mass (grams) versus temperature (degree Celsius) is produced. The effect of carbon content of the flux mixtures on the melting rate has been investigated. The heating microscope and thermal analysis were also evaluated.

[pt] O processo de lingotamento contínua de metais é simulado numericamente. Placas ou tarugos metálicos são produzidos continuamente, mantendo-se o escoamento do material através do molde. A frente de solidificação depende da velocidade de retirada de material e da refrigeração imposta na superfície do lingote. A posição da interface líquido-sólido e o campo de temperaturas na região sólida são determinados, e consideram-se os efeitos da velocidade na curvatura da interface. É analisado um modelo retangular bi-dimensional e a equação da energia é resolvida utilizando-se o método numérica de diferenças finitas das volumes de controle. Os resultados são comparados com soluções analíticas simplificadas onde a termo de transporte não foi considerado e mostram que o calar transportado pelo movimento de lingote tem influência significativa na forma da interface e em sua localização dentro do molde durante o processo. / [en] This work deals with a numerical simulation of the continuous casting process. This process is employed in the fabrication of metallic inguts. The position of the solid-liquid interface is determined together with the temperature field in the solid region. The research is facused on studying the effect of the withdrawal velocity on the interface position, aiming at accidental leakage preventien during the process. In this analysis, the sensible heat is taken into acceunt, in contrast to previous marks reported in the open literature. The present work employed a two-dimensional model. The energy equation was integrated in the rectangular domain by means of the finite-volume method. The liquid regions was at the fusion temperatures, whereas one of the side boundaries was strogly cooled to promote solidification. An algorithm was developed to determine the interface pesition and the domain length. Comparisons of this results obtained with the available solutions obtained excluding sensible heat showed that, depending upon the value of the withdrawal velocity, the sensible heat may or may not be negleted. The simulations was performed with the aid of a microcomputer of the IBM-PC/XT type, employing the Fortran language.

Orientador: Eugênio José Zoqui / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Mecânica / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-27T12:27:50Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Beil_WendelLeme_M.pdf: 9441091 bytes, checksum: a79e3096e6d5e36f55c442eaac25c9ea (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015 / Resumo: O presente trabalho visa desenvolver um projeto e executar a montagem e teste de um sistema de lingotamento contínuo, aprimorado com o uso da agitação eletromagnética, para a fabricação de lingotes de ligas de Al-Si com estrutura refinada de grãos. Durante seu desenvolvimento, o projeto almejou o estabelecimento de parâmetros construtivos do equipamento, bem como os parâmetros de processamento para obtenção dos lingotes. Os parâmetros estudados foram a altura de metal fundido na cavidade do molde, velocidade de lingotamento, temperatura de vazamento e rugosidade da cavidade do molde. Após serem determinados os parâmetros construtivos e de processamento, procedeu-se a obtenção dos lingotes propriamente ditos, em duas condições de refrigeração: refrigeração primária, somente no molde metálico, e refrigeração primária e secundária (com sistema de refrigeração na saída do lingote). Para cada uma dessas condições foram obtidos lingotes sem a aplicação do campo magnético e, sob a agitação eletromagnética a 1500 W com o campo magnético variando de 12 a 20 Gauss e 3000 W com o campo magnético variando de 22 a 38 Gauss. De posse dos lingotes seguiu-se a caracterização microestrutural por meio de análise metalográfica convencional e análise metalográfica por polarização de imagem, que buscou verificar a eficiência do sistema no refino de grãos. A condição de otimização alcançada sugere a fabricação de ligas de Al-Si nas seguintes condições: a temperatura de vazamento adotada foi de 800 ºC, rugosidade da cavidade do molde de Ra = 0,06 µm, velocidade de lingotamento 3 mm/s e altura de metal fundido na cavidade do molde de 15 a 20 mm, em que alcançou-se o tamanho de grãos com 178 µm e espaçamento interdendrítico de 125 µm, com uma potência de 1500 W e campo magnético de 12 a 20 Gauss / Abstract: This work aims to develop a project and implement the assembly and testing of a continuous casting system , enhanced with the use of electromagnetic stirring to manufacture ingots of Al-Si alloys with refined grain structure. During its development the project aspired to establishing constructive parameters of the equipment, as well as the establishment of the processing parameters for obtain ingots. The parameters studied were: the molten metal height in the mould cavity, the casting speed, the casting temperature, and the roughness of the mould cavity. After setting the construction and processing parameters were obtained obtain the ingots in two cooling conditions: primary cooling (considering only the metal mould), and primary and secondary cooling (with the ingot cooling system in the output). For each of these conditions were obtained ingots without applying the electromagnetic field and with electromagnetic stirring in 1500 W with a variation of electromagnetic field between 12 to 20 Gauss, and 3000 W with a variation eletrocmagnetic field between 22 to 38 Gauss. In possession of ingots followed the microstructural characterization by conventional metallographic analysis and metallographic analysis by polarization imaging, which aims to evaluate the efficiency of the grain refining system. The process optimized condition suggests the manufacturing Al-Si alloy in the following conditions: the pouring temperature was 800 °C, the mould cavity surface roughness Ra = 0.06 µm, casting speed is 3mm/s and molten metal height in the mould cavity of 15 to 20 mm where grain size up to 180 µm and interdendritic spacing of 125 µm, with a power of 1500 W and electromagnetic field of 12 to 20 Gauss / Mestrado / Materiais e Processos de Fabricação / Mestre em Engenharia Mecânica

<p>Cracking in continuous casting has always been one of the main problems of steel mills. Many cracks that occur during solidification are difficult to observe from outside the industrial mold. In order to better understand the formation of this defect, compared with the large-scale simulation used in the entire industrial process, microsimulation is also essential. A comprehensive study of using phase field method to simulate microstructure evolution has been conducted. A variety of two-dimensional models based on phase-filed method has been developed in order to simulate dendrites growth in continuous casting process. The basic concepts of phase-field method are presented. Among those models, Kobayashi model was first introduced to describe the morphology of pure material solidification, in this article, which are pure water and pure iron. In order to get closer to the actual situation of continuous casting, a multi-component model was introduced to solve the problem. To go a step further, by introducing a series of temperature parameters and modifications to a series of terms, the binary alloy directional solidification model was used to simulate the process of dendrite growth in continuous casting. Furthermore, the detailed derivation of the binary alloy solidification model and how to apply the model in open source software will also be introduced in this article. The effects of physical parameters such as anisotropic strength, temperature gradient and cooling rate on the growth and evolution of the dendrite interface were quantitatively analyzed. Finally, potential improvement of this model, optimization to primary cooling section in continuous casting process and various applications of the simulation were discussed.</p>

No description available.

Le second chapitre introduit les différents couplages présents dans une analyse mécanique thermique métallurgique. Il rappelle ensuite les notions de métallurgie nécessaires à la compréhension de ce travail. Le troisième chapitre décrit la modélisation adoptée pour l'analyse thermique métallurgique non couplée au problème mécanique. Le modèle choisi est celui de FERNANDES (CP30). Le code développé par ce dernier était limité à l'étude de cylindres infiniment longs, c'est-à-dire à un problème unidimensionnel. L'intégration de ce modèle, dans le code LAGAMINE apporte une grande liberté quant aux formes géométriques traitées. Actuellement, les cas bidimensionnels (état plan ou axisymétrique) peuvent être traités, une extension aux cas tridimensionnels ne pose pas de problème si ce n'est celui des temps de calcul. Du point de vue théorique, nous avons proposé une formulation différentielle de la modélisation des transformations par diffusion. Cette approche, indépendante de celle de SJOSTROM (CP38) a permis de vérifier cette dernière par une voie différente. En outre, la comparaison de cette approche avec celle plus classique de FERNANDES constitue un élément nouveau intéressant. Pour terminer, des tests de validation des développements correspondants dans le code LAGAMINE sont présentés. Le chapitre quatre est consacré aux problèmes numériques à résoudre pour réaliser une simulation de refroidissement d'une pièce métallique. Une bibliographie des schémas d'intégration temporelle des problèmes thermiques linéaires et non linéaires est présentée. A ce niveau, nous ne pouvons parler de contribution originale puisqu'il s'agit de schémas devenus classiques. Cependant, il est assez rare de trouver un résumé de ces notions souvent dispersées dans de nombreux articles. A ce titre, nous considérons ce point comme un apport intéressant de cette thèse. La prise en compte des changements de phase a occasionné un grand nombre de recherches. Après avoir fait le point sur les méthodes proposées par la littérature, nous décrivons les développements introduits dans le code LAGAMINE. Le calcul des flux et de la matrice tangente est détaillé. Ce dernier point constitue un apport personnel original, surtout au niveau de la contribution des transformations de phase à la matrice tangente. Le chapitre cinq est consacré aux interactions existant entre les phénomènes mécaniques, thermiques et métallurgiques. Une présentation approfondie de chaque couplage est réalisée et la notion de plasticité de transformation est introduite. Notre contribution personnelle et originale réside dans :  une loi élasto-plastique thermique couplée pour un matériau monophasique,  une loi élasto-plastique thermique métallurgique pour un matériau multiphasique. L'intégration des lois élasto-plastiques thermiques, métallurgiques ou non, dans le code LA GAMINE constitue le chapitre six. Les points suivants constituent un apport original de cette thèse:  schéma d'intégration temporelle de base pour ces lois couplées,  apport des sous-intervalles d'intégration,  étude de la matrice tangente couplée d'un élément isoparamétrique à 8 nuds,  amélioration du schéma d'intégration temporelle de base pour assurer la stabilité en cas de transformation martensitique,  développement de la notion d'état plan généralisé pour l'étude du refroidissement d'une poutrelle métallique. Le chapitre sept présente le problème du remaillage. Après une description succincte des solutions proposées par la littérature, nous justifions notre choix d'un remaillage avec maillage indépendant. Ce dernier semble en effet le mieux adapté aux problèmes de forgeage et d'estampage que nous désirons résoudre. Le chapitre huit est consacré à la détermination de l'instant opportun pour réaliser un remaillage. Nous distinguerons deux types de critères: a. les critères avec estimation de l'erreur, développés dans le cadre de l'optimisation des maillages d'éléments finis lors d'une analyse linéaire, ou adaptés aux problèmes non linéaires de formage des métaux, b. les critères sans estimation de l'erreur, basés sur des mesures de distorsion des éléments, les valeurs propres, les mesures des interpénétrations de la pièce forgée et de la matrice. Concernant les critères du type a, notre contribution personnelle est la suivante:  étude bibliographique traduisant dans un vocabulaire d'ingénieur, les développements mathématiques souvent présents lors des études d'estimateurs d'erreur,  adaptation du critère proposé par ZIENKIEWICZ aux lois élastoviscoplastiques présentes dans LAGAMINE et essai d'une variante basée sur une idée personnelle. Concernant les critères de type b, nous proposons des mesures de distorsions originales pour un élément isoparamétrique plan à 8 nuds et nous présentons une analyse des valeurs propres de la matrice tangente. Pour terminer, nous présentons une comparaison des critères de type a et b programmés dans LAGAMINE. A notre connaissance, une telle comparaison n'avait encore jamais été réalisée. Elle nous permet de vérifier la concordance des deux approches. Les avantages et inconvénients de chacune de ces méthodes sont établis. Ils permettent de réaliser un choix des critères à conserver dans l'optique d'un remaillage automatique. Le chapitre neuf présente succinctement la création du nouveau maillage. Les exigences relatives à un mailleur automatique adapté au problème de remaillage sont précisées. Une première approche fut réalisée par nos soins grâce à un programme interactif REMDATA. Les développements originaux de ce programme sont détaillés en annexe 3. Le chapitre dix traite le transfert des informations de l'ancien maillage au nouveau maillage. A ce niveau, deux types d'informations sont considérés: a. les informations relatives aux éléments de solide, b. les informations relatives aux éléments modélisant le contact Le transfert des informations de type a est une opération souvent traitée par la littérature. Après une revue bibliographique des méthodes proposées, nous présentons une méthode originale et personnelle de transfert. Ses qualités principales sont sa précision, sa facilité de mise en uvre et sa souplesse d'utilisation. Une comparaison de cette méthode avec deux autres méthodes basées respectivement sur les moindres carrés et sur l'extrapolation nodale des valeurs aux points d'intégration est présentée. Concernant les informations de type b, nous n'avons trouvé aucune référence qui traitait leur transfert d'un maillage à l'autre. Ce point est cependant important, comme le montrent des essais de remaillage réalisés sans interpolation de ces variables. Les deux méthodes de transfert présentées dans cette thèse montrent l'évolution de notre approche de ce problème. Toutes deux constituent des apports personnels et originaux. Le chapitre onze présente cinq exemples d'application des développements réalisés: 1. l'analyse thermique métallurgique d'une poutrelle métallique refroidie par arrosage et refroidissement naturel, 2. l'analyse thermique métallurgique mécanique d'une poutrelle métallique refroidie par arrosage et refroidissement naturel, 3. l'analyse thermique métallurgique mécanique de la trempe d'un cylindre en acier 60NCD11, 4. la simulation de l'estampage d'une aube de turbine (analyse mécanique avec remaillage), 5. la simulation de l'estampage d'un pignon de machine (analyse mécanique avec remaillage). Hormis l'application 3 qui constitue l'application du code à un cas test déjà traité par DENIS et SJOSTROM (CP31), ces exemples constituent des contributions originales. Quelques conclusions sont proposées au chapitre douze. Parmi nos contributions originales, certaines nous semblent d'une ampleur et d'un intérêt plus grands :  la loi élastoplastique thermique métallurgique et son schéma d'intégration prennent en compte les couplages existant entre les différents phénomènes. Le nombre de codes réalisant une telle analyse est assez réduit alors que des calculs réalistes de contraintes résiduelles de trempe, de soudure ne peuvent être obtenus par des analyses découplées. De plus, l'adaptation des modèles développés à d'autres traitements thermiques (revenu n.) constitue de nouvelles perspectives de recherches pour l'équipe de M.S.M.,  une présentation des estimateurs d'erreur disponibles dans le cadre de la méthode des éléments finis est une information précieuse pour les ingénieurs numériciens comme pour les industriels qui ont recours à ces calculs,  les différents avantages et inconvénients des critères de remaillage basés respectivement sur les estimateurs d'eITeur et les mesures des distorsions des éléments constituent un élément important pour ceux qui doivent faire un choix entre ces deux types de critères,  l'importance du transfert des informations relatives au contact a été mis en évidence, alors que ce sujet n'est pas abordé dans la littérature.

Non-metallic inclusions in molten steel have received worldwide attention due to their serious influence on both the steel product quality and the steel production process. These inclusions may come from the de-oxidation process, the re-oxidation by air and/or slag due to an entrainment during steel transfer, and so on. The presence of some inclusion types can cause a termination of a casting process by clogging a nozzle. Thus, a good knowledge of the inclusion behavior and deposition rate in steel flows is really important to understand phenomena such as nozzle clogging. In this thesis, inclusion behaviors and deposition rates in steel flows were investigated by using mathematical simulations and validation by experiments. A ladle teeming process was simulated and Ce2O3 inclusion behavior during a teeming stage was studied. A Lagrangian method was used to track the inclusions in a steel flow and to compare the behaviors of inclusions of different sizes. In addition, a statistical analysis was conducted by the use of a stochastic turbulence model to investigate the behaviors of different-sized inclusions in different nozzle regions. The results show that inclusions with a diameter smaller than 20 μm were found to have similar trajectories and velocity distributions in the nozzle. The inertia force and buoyancy force were found to play an important role for the behavior of large-size inclusions or clusters. The statistical analysis results indicate that the region close to the connection region of the straight pipe and the expanding part of the nozzle seems to be very sensitive for an inclusion deposition. In order to know the deposition rate of non-metallic inclusions, an improved Eulerian particle deposition model was developed and subsequently used to predict the deposition rate of inclusions. It accounts for the differences in properties between air and liquid metals and considers Brownian and turbulent diffusion, turbophoresis and thermophoresis as transport mechanisms. A CFD model was firstly built up to obtain the friction velocity caused by a fluid flow. Then, the friction velocity was put into the deposition model to calculate the deposition rate. For  the  case  of  inclusion/particle  deposition  in  vertical  steel  flows,  effects  on  the deposition rate of parameters such as steel flow rate, particle diameter, particle density, wall roughness and temperature gradient near a wall were investigated. The results show that the steel flow rate/friction velocity has a very important influence on the rate of the deposition of large particles, for which turbophoresis is the main deposition mechanism. For small particles, both the wall roughness and thermophoresis have a significant influence on the particle deposition rate. The extended Eulerian model was thereafter used to predict the inclusion deposition rate in a submerged entry nozzle (SEN). Deposition rates of different-size inclusions in the SEN were obtained. The result shows that the steel flow is non-uniform in the SEN of the tundish. This leads to an uneven distribution of the inclusion deposition rates at different locations of the inner wall of the SEN. A large deposition rate was found to occur at the regions near the SEN inlet, the SEN bottom and the upper region of two SEN ports. For the case of an inclusion/particle deposition in horizontal straight channel flows, the deposition rates of particles at different locations of a horizontal straight pipe cross- section were found to be different due to the influence of gravity and buoyancy. For small particles with a small particle relaxation time, the gravity separation is important for their deposition  behaviors  at  high  and  low  parts  of  the  horizontal  pipe  compared  to  the turbophoresis. For large particles with a large particle relaxation time, turbophoresis is the dominating deposition mechanism. / <p>QC 20150326</p>