The purpose of this study was to explore mechanisms through which high school students experience and cope with perceived discrimination and how discrimination and coping mechanisms relate to psychological distress and school engagement. Framed within transactional stress and coping and sociopolitical development theories, I tested a multiple mediation model with an ethnically diverse sample of public high school students (N = 979) and a subsample of Latina/o students (n = 433) to examine the mediating effects of three coping mechanisms (perceived social support, ethnic identity, and critical consciousness) on the relationship between perceived discrimination and the outcomes of psychological distress and school engagement. Additionally, psychological distress was examined as a mediator in the link between perceived discrimination and school engagement. Measurement and structural models were tested and demonstrated an adequate fit to the data. The hypothesized structural model accounts for 54% of the variance in school engagement and 31.2% of the variance in psychological distress in the full sample. The same model accounts for 63.4% of the variance in school engagement and 26.7% of the variance in psychological distress in the Latina/o subsample. A bootstrap analysis revealed that critical consciousness and perceived social support mediate the relationship between perceived discrimination and psychological distress in the full sample. Further, critical consciousness, ethnic identity, perceived social support, and psychological distress mediated the relationship between perceived discrimination and school engagement. A bootstrap analysis in the Latina/o subsample indicated that critical consciousness and psychological distress mediated the relationship between perceived discrimination and school engagement. While there are associated risks, the results highlight critical consciousness development as a protective racism-related coping mechanism for ethnically diverse adolescents and Latina/o youth in particular. Strengths, limitations, and implications of the study are discussed.

Several researchers have called for further research devoted to exploring positive psychology constructs among African Americans. In the present study, I addressed the aforementioned calls for African American positive psychology and existentialism research by utilizing the autoethnographic approach to explore the processes and resources that four African Americans accessed to critically think about and make sense of their lived experiences. Given the current sociopolitical climate, I wanted to intentionally use my academic and class privilege to amplify the voices and strivings of four African Americans for survival and meaning in life. I utilized the autoethnographic approach to share my personal narrative of developing critical consciousness to explain the contextual factors influencing my worldview. For this dissertation study, I also conducted in-depth interviews with three other African Americans over a series of interview sessions to explore what made their lives meaningful. A thematic analysis of the participant data was conducted to analyze and identify emergent themes. The thematic analysis produced six emergent themes and 18 subthemes to contextual powerful influences shaping their perceptions of meaning in life, existence and critical consciousness development. I am hopeful that readers will gain four different perspectives on how, as African Americans, the participants define and understand their existence, facets of life that make their lives meaningful, and how they have come to make sense of their worlds.

Thesis advisor: Belle Liang / Research has documented the benefits of youth purpose (i.e., a sustained intention that facilitates engagement in activities and contributes to the world beyond oneself) (Damon, Menon, & Bronk, 2003). Youth purpose has been considered a developmental asset (Benson, 2006) and predictive of flourishing (e.g., Seligman, 2002). A sense of purpose can also serve as an important psychological resource for people experiencing adversity (e.g., Frankl, 2006). Similarly, critical consciousness (CC) has been associated with positive outcomes among youth, including improved mental health and vocational commitments (Diemer, 2009; Diemer & Li, 2011), and can help youth cope with oppression and marginalization (Diemer, Kauffman, Koenig, Trahan, & Hsieh, 2006). Given the benefits of youth purpose, additional research on how purpose develops is warranted (Liang et al., 2017a). Theoretical models of character development (e.g., Lerner & Callina, 2014) have suggested that purpose and CC develop in similar, parallel ways, though research often has not connected these two constructs explicitly. The youth purpose and CC literatures suggest that a study of the possible link between CC and purpose, whereby CC helps facilitate the development of purpose, is warranted. Therefore, this dissertation sought to expand the literature on purpose development in college students, as well as better understand if and how CC facilitates purpose development in this population. This study included 17 interviews with purposeful college students who had either relatively higher or lower levels of CC, as measured by the Critical Consciousness Scale (CCS) (Diemer, Rapa, Park, & Perry, 2017). A modified Consensual Qualitative Research (CQR) method was used to analyze the data and yielded 60 categories to describe the factors that contributed to the students’ purpose development (Hill, Thompson, & Williams, 1997). Additional analyses suggested that CC facilitated purpose development via a healing and/or directing pathway. Students were able to heal from marginalization and trauma, which was important for helping them pursue their goals; and/or they were better able to direct their prosocial motivations toward specific beneficiaries. Implications for practice are discussed. / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2020. / Submitted to: Boston College. Lynch School of Education. / Discipline: Counseling, Developmental and Educational Psychology.

Approximately 3% of 15 to 49-year-olds in Rwanda live with HIV, many of whom are young adults. They face multiple stressors including stigma, anxiety, depression, trauma, orphanhood, and poverty. Little is known about the types of coping that facilitate resilience. Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) delivered by lay counselors can help decrease mental health symptoms in HIV+ youth, but there is little research on how administering CBT affects HIV+ lay counselors’ own coping and mental health. Participants included 69 Rwandans (ages 21-27, M=10 years of education, 38 female, 26 orphans), comprising four groups: (1) HIV+ lay counselors who administered CBT (Youth Leaders, YL) (n=17) (2) HIV+ peer-parents (PPs; facilitators of non-CBT support groups for HIV+ youth) (n=17); (3) HIV+ community members (HIV+C) (n=18); and (4) HIV- community members (HIV-C) (n=17). Groups were administered self-report measures translated into Kinyarwanda to compare use of (1) coping strategies, including mindfulness, critical consciousness (awareness of social inequities), self-blame, denial, behavioral disengagement, positive reframing, acceptance, active coping, and religious coping, and (2) mental health outcomes of anxiety/depression, self-esteem, and HIV-related stigma. Relations between coping and health outcomes across all groups were investigated. Principal components factor analysis of seven coping strategies revealed two factors: avoidant (self-blame, denial, behavioral disengagement) and approach (positive reframing, acceptance, active coping, religious coping). ANCOVAs, partial correlations, and multiple regressions indicated that YLs and HIV-Cs used significantly less avoidant coping than PPs. YLs reported less behavioral disengagement than PPs, and PPs reported more positive reframing than HIV-Cs. YLs and PPs reported higher self-esteem and less stigma than HIV-Cs. YLs demonstrated lower anxiety/depression than HIV+Cs. No other group differences were significant. Among the entire sample, approach coping and mindfulness related to higher self-esteem, whereas stigma and behavioral disengagement related to lower self-esteem. Stigma and denial related to higher anxiety/depression. Positive reframing and mindfulness related to higher self-esteem only for individuals with low critical consciousness. Results suggest that training lay counselors in CBT may reduce their own maladaptive coping and depression/anxiety. Further, facilitating critical consciousness or mindfulness/reframing and decreasing stigma may help increase self-esteem and reduce anxiety/depression in HIV+ Rwandan young adults.

This study, Relational Aggression, Middle School Girls, and the Development of Critical Consciousness, engaged both feminist theory and critical pedagogy as a means to deconstruct the issue of relational aggression among adolescent girls. The objective of this research was to contribute to the growing body of literature pertaining to relational aggression and fill some gaps in the literature surrounding preventative programming. This study investigated the experiences of middle school girls engaged in a solution- oriented approach in order to postulate possible program approaches and educational initiatives to decrease the prevalence of relational aggression in middle school girls. The collection and analysis of the data sought to describe a connection between girls’ participation in the program and developing critical consciousness about relational aggression, as well as strategies to address it in their lives. The qualitative data collected in this participatory action research show that relational aggression is much more than a mere “right of passage” or indicate that “mean girls” are a just a normal part of growing up. Relational aggression is harmful, has intense, negative short- and long-term effects, and—in the lives of the girls I have worked closely with—is very real, incredibly painful, and deeply personal. The findings of this study confirmed that girls benefit from the creation of educative environments, or “safe spaces,” where they can dialogue critically with one another about issues that are important to them; this is integral to their socioemotional development in middle school.

Growing inequity and political polarization necessitate organized political action capable of challenging large-scale, globalized power. Political projects around the globe, and certainly in America, that aim to shift power relations have become synonymous with projects of building allies. Others—people of color, queers, and women—have long formed political alliances in order to build movements that contest hegemonic power. Others have formed these alliances (with various allies) along the lines of political ideology. Increasingly, with the growing influence of identity politics overshadowing class politics, identity plays a key role in shaping who takes part in political action. The role of an “ally” has also followed this pattern, allowing non-marginalized subjects to claim a “good ally” identity, despite lived experiences that share struggle with Others. However, ally-ship is a project of life-long work that engages various forms of anti-oppression work and is rooted in a process of what Paulo Freire terms “conscientization.” Using Freire’s concepts, principals of “the ethics of care philosophy,” and qualitative interviews, this research examines why allies are important to liberation projects of marginalized groups, specifically queers. The individuals interviewed for the research each have extensive experience educating others in the process of building allyship. The research analyzes their unique approaches along with other programs centered on the process of ally building to highlight the most successful methods. The research explores the differences in ally-ship with and affirmation of Others; complicates the projects of non-oppressive groups versus anti-oppressive groups; and examines the process of ally building. Based on the data and information gathered from qualitative interviews and literature, a framework is created that outlines the processes necessary in allyship building. The findings of the research illustrate the benefits of allies to Others in the fight for equality and demonstrate how an individual can work towards becoming an ally to these groups. In short, this research illustrates Freire's concepts of education for “critical consciousness” as it is applied to allies and the necessary action against oppressive agents.

Thesis advisor: Belle Liang / Adolescent girls have reached unprecedented levels of success in today’s society. Simultaneously, many adolescent girls face adversities and their mental health remains a concern (Schramal et al., 2010; Spencer et al., 2018;). Positive Youth Development scholars continues to explore how society can best support adolescent girls as they navigate key developmental milestones (Lerner et al., 2005; Damon, 2004). Importantly, research has solidified a number of benefits of Youth Purpose (i.e., a long-term, committed, directed aspiration, with a prosocial desire). Youth Purpose is considered a key developmental asset, and contributes to thriving. Indeed, having a sense of purpose can serve as a protective factor for individuals and help bolster their overall well-being (Liang et al., 2018; Liang et al, 2017; Damon et al., 2003). Youth purpose along with Post Traumatic Growth can positively impact individuals facing adversities (Kashdan & McKnight, 2009; Tedeschi & Lawrence, 2004). Similarly, mentoring relationships are associated with numerous positive outcomes including the development of purpose (Dubois & Rhodes, 2006; Lerner, 2004; Liang et al., 2017). While youth purpose is well documented (Damon et al., 2003; Hill et al., 2010), there is limited research on purpose development for adolescent girls from marginalized backgrounds. Given the profound benefits of purpose, additional research is warranted on how purpose is cultivated in marginalized adolescent girls. This dissertation sought to expand the literature and better understand how adversity relates to purpose development, during the adolescent years and how mentoring relationships can contribute to this development. Additional research is needed to focus on one of the most vulnerable populations, adolescent girls from marginalized backgrounds, and to discover ways to help protect their mental health and well- being as they continue to thrive in society. This study included 13 interviews with adolescent girls from marginalized backgrounds. Thematic analysis was used to analyze the data and five major themes emerged. Analyses suggested that while these participants experiences endured adverse experiences, they maintained a positive outlook on life, and their future. With the help of their mentors, and through the development of critical consciousness, participants were able to utilize adverse experiences to help inform their sense of purpose. Data was collected during the COVID-19 pandemic. This crucial time period allowed for the collection of exemplary data, which revealed how adolescent girls utilized the pandemic as a time for self-growth, and how they conceptualized their purpose with respect to the pandemic. / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2023. / Submitted to: Boston College. Lynch School of Education. / Discipline: Counseling, Developmental and Educational Psychology.

Thesis advisor: Rebecca Lowenhaupt / There is a need for schools to implement practices to disrupt the inequities that exist for marginalized students in public education. As the theory of critical consciousness details, inequality is sustained when the people most affected by it are unable to decode their social conditions (El-Amin et al., 2017). An equitable democracy depends on critically conscious citizens (Seider & Graves, 2020). When educators and students can identify oppressive systems, they are better prepared to take action to disrupt those systems. This study analyzes how adult learning opportunities might position educators as agents of social justice-oriented educational practice. For the sake of this research, adult learning is defined as encompassing the learning experiences of educators, including district professional development as well as outside learning experiences in higher education institutions or the community. There is limited research regarding how the construct of race impacts adult learning experiences for critical consciousness. Therefore, this research studies the impacts of the construct of race during the process of adult learning. This study investigates how educators narrate their experiences with race during adult learning through the lens of critical consciousness. / Thesis (EdD) — Boston College, 2022. / Submitted to: Boston College. Lynch School of Education. / Discipline: Educational Leadership and Higher Education.

Participatory approaches to international and community development have gained significant popularity, and are commonly held to be intrinsically empowering processes. In the context of development, both participation and empowerment were borne of radical claims and democratizing goals, but over time, both concepts have been confused and misappropriated. The popularity of the terms participation and empowerment, coupled with the ambiguity of their meanings, illustrates a symptom of their co-optation away from their radical and political roots. This ethnographic case study explored the mechanics of the participatory approach and claims of empowerment within the experience of a non-governmental organization based in Chiapas, Mexico. This study aimed to investigate the linkages between participation and empowerment, in their original radical and theoretical forms, as well as in practice—addressing questions of whether and how participation may lead to empowerment. The organization's endeavors to create space for participatory learning for critical consciousness and self-sufficiency, as understood through 30 semi-structured interviews and three months of participant observation, provided insight into these questions and their conceptual underpinnings. I analyzed data by drawing upon Freirean critical pedagogy, critical theory, and theories of participation and participatory learning. Findings examine the influence of clientelism, Catholic liberation theology, and the Zapatista uprising on the ways rural campesinos develop critical consciousness and organize to dismantle systems of oppression. Findings illustrate examples of interactive participation and self-mobilization. The study serves to demonstrate the importance of cultural and historical contexts, and of solidarity and downward accountability within the praxis of participation and empowerment. / Master of Science in Life Sciences

In this thesis, I consider the ways in which classroom teachers develop critical consciousness and implement it within their pedagogy in the context of effectively teaching Black students to achieve academic success. The process of critical consciousness is complex and is mainly studied outside of teacher education. The findings of this thesis fall into three main themes: self-awareness; analysis of power; and inquiry of assumptions. The research also demonstrates that the spirituality of the teacher is an important contributing factor in one’s transformation. With this work, the hope is that teacher education programs dialogue about the importance of critical consciousness, and integrate it into the recipe that makes up “quality teaching” so that all students can have the opportunity to succeed in an equitable schooling environment.