This work was carried out to study the effect of shot-peening on the fatigue behaviour of carbon steels. Differently heat treated medium and high carbon steel specimens were selected. Medium carbon steels, AISI 1141 and AISI 1151, were respectively air cooled and quenched-tempered. A high carbon steel, C70S6 (AISI 1070), was air cooled. The other material was a powder metal (0.5% C) steel. Each group of steels was divided into two. One was shot-peened. The other half remained in their original conditions. All were fatigue tested under fully reversed (R=-1) tension-compression loading conditions. Microhardness tests were carried out on both the grip and gage sections of selected non shot-peened and shot-peened specimens to determine the hardness profile and effect of cycling. Shot-peening was found to be deeper on one side of each specimen. Compressive residual stress profiles and surface roughness measurements were provided. Shot-peening increased the surface roughness from 0.26±0.03µm to 3.60±0.44µm. Compressive residual stresses induced by shot-peening reached a maximum of -463.9MPa at a depth of 0.1mm.The fatigue limit (N≈106 cycles) and microhardness profiles of the non shot-peened and shot-peened specimens were compared to determine the material behaviour changes after shot-peening and cycling. Also their fatigue properties were related to the manufacturing process including heat and surface treatments. Comparing the grip and gage microhardness profiles of each steel showed that neither cyclic softening nor hardening occurred in the non shot-peened condition. Cyclic softening was apparent in the shot-peened regions of all steels except powder metal (PM) steel. The amount of softening in the shot-peened region was 55.0% on the left side and 73.0% on the right in the AISI 1141 steel , 46.0% on the left side and 55.0% on the right in the C70S6AC steel and 31.0% on the right side in AISI 1151QT steel. Softening was accompanied by a decrease in the depth of surface hardness. It is suggested that although the beneficial effects of shot peening, compressive residual stresses and work hardening, were offset by surface roughness, crack initiation was more likely to occur below the surface. Surface roughness was not a significant factor in controlling the fatigue lives of AISI 1141AC and C70S6 steels, since they were essentially the same for the non shot-peened and shot-peened conditions. Shot-peening had very little effect on the push-pull fatigue limit of C70S6 steel (-2.1%), and its effect on AISI 1141AC steel was relatively small (6.0%). However, the influence of shot-peening on the AISI 1151QT and PM steels was more apparent. The fatigue limit of the PM steel increased 14.0% whereas the fatigue limit of the AISI 1151QT steel decreased 11.0% on shot peening.

This work was carried out to study the effect of shot-peening on the fatigue behaviour of carbon steels. Differently heat treated medium and high carbon steel specimens were selected. Medium carbon steels, AISI 1141 and AISI 1151, were respectively air cooled and quenched-tempered. A high carbon steel, C70S6 (AISI 1070), was air cooled. The other material was a powder metal (0.5% C) steel. Each group of steels was divided into two. One was shot-peened. The other half remained in their original conditions. All were fatigue tested under fully reversed (R=-1) tension-compression loading conditions. Microhardness tests were carried out on both the grip and gage sections of selected non shot-peened and shot-peened specimens to determine the hardness profile and effect of cycling. Shot-peening was found to be deeper on one side of each specimen. Compressive residual stress profiles and surface roughness measurements were provided. Shot-peening increased the surface roughness from 0.26±0.03µm to 3.60±0.44µm. Compressive residual stresses induced by shot-peening reached a maximum of -463.9MPa at a depth of 0.1mm.The fatigue limit (N≈106 cycles) and microhardness profiles of the non shot-peened and shot-peened specimens were compared to determine the material behaviour changes after shot-peening and cycling. Also their fatigue properties were related to the manufacturing process including heat and surface treatments. Comparing the grip and gage microhardness profiles of each steel showed that neither cyclic softening nor hardening occurred in the non shot-peened condition. Cyclic softening was apparent in the shot-peened regions of all steels except powder metal (PM) steel. The amount of softening in the shot-peened region was 55.0% on the left side and 73.0% on the right in the AISI 1141 steel , 46.0% on the left side and 55.0% on the right in the C70S6AC steel and 31.0% on the right side in AISI 1151QT steel. Softening was accompanied by a decrease in the depth of surface hardness. It is suggested that although the beneficial effects of shot peening, compressive residual stresses and work hardening, were offset by surface roughness, crack initiation was more likely to occur below the surface. Surface roughness was not a significant factor in controlling the fatigue lives of AISI 1141AC and C70S6 steels, since they were essentially the same for the non shot-peened and shot-peened conditions. Shot-peening had very little effect on the push-pull fatigue limit of C70S6 steel (-2.1%), and its effect on AISI 1141AC steel was relatively small (6.0%). However, the influence of shot-peening on the AISI 1151QT and PM steels was more apparent. The fatigue limit of the PM steel increased 14.0% whereas the fatigue limit of the AISI 1151QT steel decreased 11.0% on shot peening.

In der Dissertation werden Konzepte vorgestellt, mit denen die Abschätzung der Dauerfestigkeit von Bauteilen auf Grundlage von Werkstoffkennwerten möglich ist. Aus den sich dabei ergebenden Problemen sowie den speziellen Anforderungen der Werkstoffgruppe Sinterstahl wird ein neues Konzept aus bruchmechanischen Überlegungen abgeleitet. Damit ist eine Anwendung ohne prinzipielle Einschränkung bezüglich der Bauteilgeometrie und unter Berücksichtigung der individuellen Kerbempfi ndlichkeit des Werkstoffs möglich. Die Validierung und statistische Auswertung anhand einer breiten Datenbasis belegt eine gute Treffsicherheit im Vergleich zu anderen Verfahren. Empfehlungen zur praktischen Anwendung und den Grenzen der verschiedenen Konzepte werden gegeben.

This master thesis deals with wheel set axles of rail vehicles, their design and methods of implementation stress analysis. In this work, I created a powered locomotive wheel set: axle and wheel. For the purpose of the design department of the Bonatrans Group a.s. company I developed an analytical solver, which allows creating stress analysis, which will be used for verifying finished design and in addition it allows printing of stress analysis as report for the railway´s offices. Next step was a stress analysis of this design of axle in this analytical solver.

[pt] Estudos recentes têm mostrado que para muitos materiais de Engenharia não existe um limite de fadiga. Numa análise convencional, se admite uma vida infinita em fadiga de alto ciclo quando o material atinge 10(6) - 10(7) ciclos sem a incidência de falhas. Entretanto, em função do desenvolvimento tecnológico atual, a vida-fadiga de inúmeros componentes mecânicos e estruturais pode ultrapassar a fronteira da fadiga de alto ciclo, fazendo com que a avaliação do comportamento em fadiga de altíssimo ciclo (10(7) – 10(12)), tenha se tornado extremamente importante para projetos, por ter estabelecido que uma tensão limite de fadiga não existe em muitos casos. Pesquisas recentes demonstram que a maioria dos materiais, incluindo ligas ferrosas, apresentam falhas em até 10(10) ciclos, com um decréscimo contínuo do limite de fadiga após 10(6) ciclos, o que torna a resistência à fadiga associada com um número de ciclos mais importante do que o próprio limite de fadiga. No regime de altíssimo ciclo de fadiga as trincas se iniciam a partir de defeitos internos do material, como inclusões, gerando mecanismos de iniciação de trincas caraterísticos das superfícies de fratura, tais como olho de peixe (fish-eye), ODA (Optically Dark Area) e FGA (Fine Granular Area). Neste estudo foram usinados corpos de prova do aço DIN 34CrNiMo6, que foram ensaiados entre 10(6) e 10(9) ciclos, sob fadiga ultrassônica do tipo tração-compressão, com frequência de 20 kHz e razão de carregamento -1. Os resultados mostraram que o material tem uma tendência maior a vida-fadiga sob valores baixos de tensão e na superfície de fratura de alguns corpos de prova formação de fish-eye. / [en] Recent studies have shown that for many engineering materials there is no fatigue limit. In a conventional analysis, infinite life in high cycle fatigue is allowed when the material reaches 10(6) - 10(7) cycles without the occurrence of failures. However, due to the current technological development, the fatigue life of several mechanical and structural components can exceed the boundary of high cycle fatigue, making the evaluation of ultra high cyle fatigue behavior (10(7)-10(12)), or fatigue of very high cycle, has become extremely important for projects, because it has established that a stress of fatigue limit does not exist in many cases. Current research has shown that most materials, including ferrous alloys, exhibit failures in up to 10(9) cycles, with a continuous decrease in the fatigue limit after 10(6) cycles, which makes strength fatigue associated with a number of cycles most important than own fatigue limit. In the very high fatigue cycles regime, cracks start from internal defects of the material, such as inclusions, generating a feature mechanisms of crack initiation on the fracture surfaces, such as fish-eye, ODA (Optically Dark Area) and Fine Granular Area (FGA). This study, specimens of DIN 34CrNiMo6 steel were machined and were tested between 10(6) and 10(9) cycles, under ultrasonic fatigue, with a frequency of 20 kHz and a loading ratio of -1. The results showed that the material has a tendency to fatigue life under low stress values and in some fracture sufaces of the specimens the fish-eye formation.

[pt] O projeto mecânico de componentes estruturais para vidas longas à fadiga requer limites de fadiga confiáveis. Porém, a previsão do limite de fadiga ainda apresenta alguns desafios, especialmente por causa dos inevitáveis entalhes e pela presença de pequenos defeitos intrínsecos do material que podem ser considerados como microtrincas. Os entalhes atuam como concentradores de tensão e microtrincas podem ser geradas na ponta destes. Tais microtrincas (geradas ou intrínsecas) podem propagar até provocar a falha do componente ou parar de propagar depois de crescer uma pequena distância e se tornarem não-propagantes, dependendo do nível de carga e do gradiente de tensão à frente do entalhe. Modelos empíricos e teóricos têm sido propostos para fazer previsão do limite de fadiga de componentes entalhados. Entre os teóricos, o chamado modelo do Gradiente de Tensão (GT), que utiliza conceitos da mecânica da fratura linear elástica, apresenta-se como um modelo promissor. No entanto, a validação experimental das previsões deste modelo ainda não tem sido completamente realizada. Neste contexto, corpos de prova tipo C(T) do aço 1020 e com vários valores do raio da ponta do entalhe foram testados sob controle de amplitude de carga constante, frequência de 40 Hz e razão de tensão R igual a 0.1 para avaliar o limite de fadiga através de testes acelerados com cargas tipo step up durante blocos de 3.10 elevado a sexta potência ciclos. O limite de fadiga determinado experimentalmente foi comparado com as previsões do modelo GT e do Método do Ponto, um dos métodos da chamada Teoria da Distância Crítica (TDC). No modelo GT foram considerados três métodos: GTc-p, GTs-e e GTquebra, segundo o método usado para achar o fator geométrico para determinar o fator de intensidade de tensão. As previsões dos modelos GTc-p, GTquebra e TDC são similares no caso de entalhes com raios de ponta grandes, e bem próximas do limite de fadiga medido experimentalmente, enquanto que eles são não-conservativos no caso de entalhes afiados (raios de ponta pequenos). As previsões do modelo GTs-e foram conservativas para entalhes afiados e não afiados. Devido a que os dois modelos são baseados em conceitos lineares elásticos, foi demonstrado que uma análise elástica apresenta limitações para modelar o comportamento à fadiga em entalhes afiados, pois nesses casos a tensão local no ponto crítico pode exceder o limite de escoamento do material. Alem disso, o modelo GT também permite estimar o tamanho da maior trinca curta não-propagante (TCNP) associada ao limite de fadiga. Tais TCNP foram monitoradas nas faces do C(T) através de técnicas não-destrutivas tais como microscopia óptica, correlação digital de imagens e tomografia; enquanto que as TCNP internas foram detectadas usando a técnica destrutiva da metalografia. Os tamanhos das TCNP detectadas foram muito menores do que as estimadas pelo modelo GT, dificultando ainda mais o problema de detecção daquelas trincas. / [en] The mechanical design of structural components for high cycle fatigue applications needs reliable fatigue limits. However, mainly because of notches and the unavoidable presence of small defects, such a task still presents some challenges. Notches cause a stress concentration effect that can initiate short cracks at their tips, but such short cracks may propagate or become non-propagating, depending not only on the load level, but on the stress gradient ahead of the notch tip as well. Notch-like defects, such as scratches, pores, and inclusions, behave in the same way. There are empirical and theoretical models to predict the fatigue limit of notched components. The latter includes the so-called Stress Gradient (SG) model, based on linear elastic fracture mechanics concepts and using the El Haddad-Topper-Smith (ETS) characteristic size aR, as a promissory approach. However, there is a lack of experimental data verifying their fatigue limit predictions. In this context, C(T)-like notched specimens of SAE 1020 steel with several notch root radii were tested under constant load amplitude control at 40 Hz and a stress ratio R equal 0.1, to evaluate their fatigue limit through accelerated tests involving step loading procedures with blocks of 3.10 to sixth power cycles. The experimental fatigue limit was compared with values predicted by SG model, following three approaches: SGc-p, SGs-e, and SGquebra, according to the determination of the geometric factor of the stress concentration factor; and with an alternative prediction by the Point Method based on the theory of critical-distance (TCD). SGc-p, SGquebra and TCD model predictions are almost coincident for blunt notches and they present a good agreement with experimental results, but they are non-conservatives in the case of sharp notches; while SGc-p predictions are conservative for both blunt and sharp notches. Since both models are based on linear elastic concepts, it was demonstrated that an elastic analysis presents limitations to model the behavior of short cracks emanating from sharp notches, due to the local stress at the critical point can exceed the yield strength of the material. Furthermore, according to SG model, the fatigue limit is related to the presence of non-propagating short cracks (NPSC). Such surface NPSCs on the face of the specimens were monitored by non-destructive techniques including optical microscopy, digital image correlation (DIC) and micro-computed tomography; whereas subsurface NPSCs were detected through destructive metallographic technique. The sizes of the detected NPSCs were much smaller than those values predicted by SG model, which in turn makes the detection of these cracks a more complex problem.

Cette étude s’est focalisée sur l’influence d’une opération de fraisage sur l’intégrité de surface et la durée de vie en fatigue des pièces usinées en titane (Ti-6Al-4V). L’influence des paramètres géométriques tels que les angles de coupe et les rayons de bec sur la performance de l’outil à savoir la durée de vie de l’outil est analysée. Une deuxième partie est consacrée à l’influence des paramètres géométriques sur l’intégrité de surface définie par des facteurs tels que la topographie, les contraintes résiduelles, la dureté et la microstructure. Afin de déterminer la nature des contraintes résiduelles, une approche thermomécanique a été utilisée. Une relation entre les contraintes résiduelles et la dureté sous la surface usinée est établie. Une dernière partie est dédiée à la l’étude de la fatigue des pièces en titane usinées selon les différents paramètres géométriques. Une comparaison des limites d’endurance expérimentales et analytiques issue de la littérature a permis de déterminer les paramètres influents de l’intégrité de surface sur la performance en fatigue. Une analyse fractographique a révélé les phénomènes liés à l’usinage influençant la rupture du matériau. / This study is carried out on the influence of milling process on surface integrity and fatigue life of a titanium alloy (Ti-6Al-4V). Geometric parameters like cutting angles and nose radius are investigated. In the first part, the observation is focused on tool life. The second part is dedicated to the influence of geometric parameters on surface integrity which is defined by topography, residual stress, hardness and microstructure. To determine the nature of the residual stresses a thermomechanical approach is used. A relation between residual stress and hardness is established. The last part deals with the study of the fatigue of milled titanium samples. A comparison is made between experimental fatigue limit and analytical fatigue limit of a model from literature. With this comparison, the most influential factor of surface integrity on fatigue limit is determined. A fractography analysis reveals the phenomenon related to milling process which can influence the material rupture.

The work is concerned with the development of a multi-stage corrosion fatigue lifetime model, with emphasis on pitting as a precursor to cracking. The model is based upon the quantitative evaluation of damage during the overall corrosion fatigue process. The fatigue response of as-received API 5L X65 linepipe steel has been investigated in terms of the evolution of damage during pit development, pit-to-crack transition and crack propagation. Micro-potentiostatic polarisation was conducted to evaluate role of stress on pit development. Crack growth rate measurements were conducted on pre-pitted specimens, which were tested in air and brine, to evaluate the initiation and propagation behaviour of cracks emanating from artificial pits. Finite element analysis was undertaken to evaluate the stress and strain distribution associated with the pits. A cellular automata finite element model was also developed for predicting corrosion fatigue damage. Pit growth rate was enhanced under stress. It was considered that the strain localisation effect of the pit facilitated strain-assisted dissolution. In air, cracks initiated predominantly from the pit mouth. FEA results indicated that this was due to localisation of strain towards the pit mouth. In corrosion fatigue, cracks tended to initiate at the pit base at low stress and at the pit mouth at higher stresses. Crack initiation lifetimes were shorter in the aggressive environment compared to air and the effect of the environment on crack initiation lifetime was lower at higher stress levels. Crack initiation lifetime for double pits generally decreased with decreasing pit-to-pit separation distance. The microstructure was observed to influence crack growth behaviour in air particularly in the early stages when cracks were short. The acceleration and retardation in crack growth were attributed to the resistance of grain boundaries to crack advance. Cracks sometimes arrested at these barriers and became non-propagating. Introduction of the environment for a short period appear to eliminate the resistance of the microstructural barriers thus promoting re-propagation of the previously arrested crack. The continued crack propagation after the removal of the environment suggests that the influence of the environment is more important in the early stages of crack growth. Crack growth rates were higher in the aggressive environment than in air. The degree of environmental enhancement of crack growth was found to be greater at lower stress levels and at short crack lengths. Oxide-induced crack closure and crack coalescence were two mechanisms that also affected crack growth behaviour.2-D cellular automata finite element simulation results, with and without stress, show good agreement agreed with experiments i.e. pit depth and pit aspect ratio increase with time. Results from 3-D cellular automata simulations of pits are also consistent with experiments. Fatigue lifetimes were significantly shorter (i) in the brine environment than in air and (ii) for specimens with double pits compared to single pits of similar depth. Fatigue strength in air was found to decrease with increasing pit depth. Corrosion fatigue lifetimes predicted based upon the developed model showed good agreement with the experimental lifetimes.

The pores in pressed and sintered components constitute weak points in the material since the stress concentration is larger than the nominal stress there. Therefore, fatigue cracks initiate at the pores. Specifically, it can be assumed that the fatigue cracks initiate at the largest pore in the stressed volume. Studies have previously looked at finding ways to model the fatigue strength of the material based on the largest pore. This thesis looks at a model previously derived for hardened pressed and sintered materials that is based on linear elastic fracture mechanics and investigates if said model can be modified to include non-hardened pressed and sintered materials that do not necessarily behave linear elastically. A model describing the influence of the size of the largest pore on the fatigue limit using empirical coefficients is suggested. Furthermore, the area of the largest pore is modelled using extreme value statistics. The model proved successful in modelling the density effect of the porosity on the fatigue strength for two materials with different microstructures: one with a homogeneous microstructure and one with a heterogeneous microstructure. For the material with the homogenoeous microstructure the model also accounted well for the notch effect when tested on samples with a different geometry. However, for the heterogeneous material the model did not account for the notch effect. Deformation hardening due to local plastic deformation in the softer phases was suggested as a possible explanation and was supported by tensile tests.

In der Dissertation werden Konzepte vorgestellt, mit denen die Abschätzung der Dauerfestigkeit von Bauteilen auf Grundlage von Werkstoffkennwerten möglich ist. Aus den sich dabei ergebenden Problemen sowie den speziellen Anforderungen der Werkstoffgruppe Sinterstahl wird ein neues Konzept aus bruchmechanischen Überlegungen abgeleitet. Damit ist eine Anwendung ohne prinzipielle Einschränkung bezüglich der Bauteilgeometrie und unter Berücksichtigung der individuellen Kerbempfi ndlichkeit des Werkstoffs möglich. Die Validierung und statistische Auswertung anhand einer breiten Datenbasis belegt eine gute Treffsicherheit im Vergleich zu anderen Verfahren. Empfehlungen zur praktischen Anwendung und den Grenzen der verschiedenen Konzepte werden gegeben.