To safely store carbon dioxide in enhanced oil recovery/ CO2 sequestration projects it is important to ensure the integrity of the caprock during and after production and injection. A change in fluid pressure and temperature within a porous reservoir will generally induce stress changes within the reservoir and the rocks that surround it. Amongst the potential hazards resulting from these induced stress changes is the reactivation of existing faults or fractures and inducing new fractures, which may breach the hydraulic integrity of the caprock that bounds the reservoir.<p> The theories of inclusions and inhomogeneities have been used in this research to derive semi-analytical and closed-form solutions for induced stress change during pore pressure change within a reservoir and in the surrounding rock, under plane strain and axisymmetric conditions. Methods have been developed to assess fault reactivation and induced fracturing during injection or production within a reservoir. The failure stress change concept for a Coulomb failure criterion has been used to study the likelihood of fault reactivation and induced fracturing within the reservoir. Formulations have been adopted to calculate the critical pressure change for fault reactivation and induced fracturing within the reservoir and in the surrounding rock during injection and production. Sensitivity analysis has been performed to study the effects of different parameters such as initial in-situ stress, reservoir geometry, reservoir depth, reservoir tilt or dip , material property contrast between the reservoir and surrounding rock, fault geometry, fault strength, and intact rock strength. General patterns of induced stress change, in-situ stress evolution, fault reactivation, and induced fracturing have been identified.<p> The developed methodologies have been applied to six different case studies: fault reactivation analysis in the entire field for a synthetic case study; induced fracturing analysis in the entire field in a synthetic case study; fault reactivation and induced stress change analysis within the Ekofisk oil reservoir in North Sea; fault reactivation analysis in the Lacq gas reservoir in France; the Weyburn-Midale EOR/CO2 Storage project in southeast Saskatchewan; and acid gas injection in Zama oil field, Alberta. The results of these case studies show good consistency with field observation, and physical and numerical models.<p> The generality, simplicity, and straightforwardness of the developed methodologies, along with their flexibility to model different plausible scenarios and their ease of implementation for systematic sensitivity analyses makes them suitable for decision-making and uncertainty management, specifically in early stages of reservoir development or site assessment for geological sequestration of carbon dioxide.

To safely store carbon dioxide in enhanced oil recovery/ CO2 sequestration projects it is important to ensure the integrity of the caprock during and after production and injection. A change in fluid pressure and temperature within a porous reservoir will generally induce stress changes within the reservoir and the rocks that surround it. Amongst the potential hazards resulting from these induced stress changes is the reactivation of existing faults or fractures and inducing new fractures, which may breach the hydraulic integrity of the caprock that bounds the reservoir.<p> The theories of inclusions and inhomogeneities have been used in this research to derive semi-analytical and closed-form solutions for induced stress change during pore pressure change within a reservoir and in the surrounding rock, under plane strain and axisymmetric conditions. Methods have been developed to assess fault reactivation and induced fracturing during injection or production within a reservoir. The failure stress change concept for a Coulomb failure criterion has been used to study the likelihood of fault reactivation and induced fracturing within the reservoir. Formulations have been adopted to calculate the critical pressure change for fault reactivation and induced fracturing within the reservoir and in the surrounding rock during injection and production. Sensitivity analysis has been performed to study the effects of different parameters such as initial in-situ stress, reservoir geometry, reservoir depth, reservoir tilt or dip , material property contrast between the reservoir and surrounding rock, fault geometry, fault strength, and intact rock strength. General patterns of induced stress change, in-situ stress evolution, fault reactivation, and induced fracturing have been identified.<p> The developed methodologies have been applied to six different case studies: fault reactivation analysis in the entire field for a synthetic case study; induced fracturing analysis in the entire field in a synthetic case study; fault reactivation and induced stress change analysis within the Ekofisk oil reservoir in North Sea; fault reactivation analysis in the Lacq gas reservoir in France; the Weyburn-Midale EOR/CO2 Storage project in southeast Saskatchewan; and acid gas injection in Zama oil field, Alberta. The results of these case studies show good consistency with field observation, and physical and numerical models.<p> The generality, simplicity, and straightforwardness of the developed methodologies, along with their flexibility to model different plausible scenarios and their ease of implementation for systematic sensitivity analyses makes them suitable for decision-making and uncertainty management, specifically in early stages of reservoir development or site assessment for geological sequestration of carbon dioxide.

Submitted by JOSE EDUARDO SARTORI null (edu_sammy@yahoo.com.br) on 2018-03-08T23:03:10Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Tese_JES.pdf: 11494584 bytes, checksum: 689b2ca420e30f0b0e97f388ecc4d2d2 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Adriana Aparecida Puerta null (dripuerta@rc.unesp.br) on 2018-03-09T17:23:59Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 sartori_je_dr_rcla.pdf: 10806564 bytes, checksum: 16932cd737c53cf35719973ca5cab2ef (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-03-09T17:23:59Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 sartori_je_dr_rcla.pdf: 10806564 bytes, checksum: 16932cd737c53cf35719973ca5cab2ef (MD5) Previous issue date: 2018-01-11 / Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq) / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / A Zona de Falha de Cássia corresponde a uma zona de falha transcorrente sinistral oblíqua orientada segundo a direção geral NNW-SSE. A estrutura se desenvolveu em decorrência de movimentações tardias do Cinturão de Cisalhamento Campo do Meio durante o Ciclo Orogênico Brasiliano. A Zona de Falha de Cássia está registrada através de uma faixa de rochas deformadas de largura variável entre 0,5 a 3,0 km, composta por rochas miloníticas, caracterizadas por deformação dúctil-rúptil em condições metamórficas de fácies xisto verde, zona da clorita. A descontinuidade foi reativada como uma zona de falha normal, com bloco baixo a sudoeste (reativação geométrica) durante o Neocretáceo, correlacionada com o Soerguimento do Alto Paranaíba. A reativação tectônica foi marcada por intensa brechação, cataclase e a formação de dois conjuntos de falhas normais com arranjo em blocos escalonados progressivamente rebaixados para oeste. As feições microestruturais e reações de alteração constatadas, juntamente com a ocorrência de pseudotaquilito permitiram inferir que estas rochas de falha foram desenvolvidas em profundidades inferiores a 11 km, com temperaturas menores que 300°C, provavelmente associadas a sismos. Uma segunda etapa de reativação está registrada através da formação de depósitos sedimentares argilosos e arenosos quaternários, respectivamente nas regiões de Cássia-Pratápolis e Desemboque. Tratam-se de depósitos correlativos de falha relacionados à movimentação da Zona de Falha de Cássia como uma zona de falha normal, com bloco baixo a sudoeste, configurando uma reativação cinemática. Localmente os sedimentos exibem feições de deformação rúptil como falhas, fraturas e zonas brechadas, indicando atividade neotectônica na região. Este rico acervo de produtos geológicos transforma a Zona de Falha de Cássia em modelo para estudos de reativação tectônica em ambiente intraplaca e evolução de longo termo. / The Cássia Fault Zone corresponds to an oblique sinistral transcurrent fault zone oriented in the general direction NNW-SSE. The structure developed as a result of late movements of the Campo do Meio Shear Belt during the Brasilian Orogenic Cycle. The Cássia Fault Zone is recorded through a range of deformed rocks varying in width ranging from 0.5 to 3.0 km, composed of milonitic rocks, characterized by ductile deformation in metamorphic conditions of green schist facies (chlorite zone). The discontinuity was reactivated as a normal fault zone, with a lower block to the southwest (geometric reactivation) during the Neocretaceous, correlated with the Soerguimento do Alto Paranaíba. The tectonic reactivation was marked by intense breccia, cataclase and the formation of two sets of normal faults with arrangement in stepped blocks progressively lowered to the west. The microstructural features and alteration reactions observed together with the occurrence of pseudotaquilite allowed us to infer that these fault rocks were developed at depths lower than 11 km, with temperatures lower than 300 ° C, probably associated with earthquakes. A second stage of reactivation is recorded through the formation of quaternary sedimentary deposits in the regions of Cássia-Pratápolis and Desemboque. These are correlative fault deposits related to the movement of the Cássia Fault Zone as a normal fault zone, with a lower block to the southwest, forming a kinematic reactivation. Locally, the sediments exhibit features of deformation such as faults, fractures and breccias, indicating neotectonic activity in the region. This rich collection of geological products transforms the Cássia Fault Zone into a model for studies of tectonic reactivation in intraplate environment and long term evolution. / CNPq: 165801/2014-0

[pt] Visando aumentar a produção de hidrocarbonetos, a indústria do petróleo desenvolveu métodos de recuperação cujo objetivo é obter uma maior produção. Assim, diversos problemas podem ser encontrados quando se faz uso destas técnicas, principalmente a convencional, em reservatórios geologicamente complexos. Por outro lado, a consideração de estruturas geológicas na engenharia de reservatórios, como as falhas, tem caráter fundamental para a determinação de respostas realísticas quanto à produção de hidrocarboneto. No caso específico da falha, a sua consideração no modelo apresenta importância significativa no âmbito atual, principalmente no que diz respeito à possibilidade de reativação, relacionada com o surgimento de um caminho preferencial para o hidrocarboneto, implicando, nos casos mais críticos, no escape de fluido e na possível perda da estanqueidade do reservatório. Neste contexto, foram idealizados quatro modelos de reservatório com inclinações de falha e zona de falha de 80 graus e 60 graus. Aliado às simulações hidromecânicas, foram estudadas duas abordagens numéricas para tratar o plano/zona de falha. A primeira metodologia empregada faz uso de interações de contato e a falha foi tratada como um plano. A segunda metodologia considera uma zona de falha cujo comportamento é dado pelo critério de plastificação de Mohr-Coulomb. Pela análise dos resultados foi observado que o emprego de interações de contato requer a utilização de um modelo de atrito que leve em consideração a queda das tensões normais efetivas no critério de ruptura. O modelo de plasticidade apresentou resultados consistentes em relação ao processo de reativação da zona de falha para os modelos construídos. Como conclusão geral do trabalho, afirma-se que a consideração de planos de falha ou zonas de falha em reservatórios devem ser definidas cautelosamente no modelo geomorfológico, uma vez que a modelagem destes tipos de estruturas geológicas requer a utilização de diferentes técnicas numéricas para determinar seu comportamento hidromecânico. / [en] Aiming to increase hydrocarbon production, the oil industry has developed recovery methods whose purpose is to get more production. Thus, several problems may be encountered when making use of these techniques, mainly the conventional, in geologically complex reservoirs. In addition, consideration of geological structures in reservoir engineering, such as faults, has fundamental character for determining realistic response for the production of hydrocarbons. In the specific case of faults, its consideration in the model has significant importance currently, especially with regard to the possibility of reactivation associated with the emergence of a preferential path for the hydrocarbon, implying, in the most critical cases, in the leakage of fluid and possible loss of tightness of the reservoir. In this context, four reservoir models were developed with slope of 80 degrees and 60 degrees for the cases of fault plane and fault zone. Using coupled hydro-mechanical simulations we studied two numerical approaches to treat the plan/fault zone. The first methodology makes use of contact interactions and the fault was treated as a plan. The second methodology considers a fault zone whose behavior is given by the criterion of Mohr-Coulomb yielding. In the analysis of the results was observed that the use of contact interactions requires the use of a friction model that takes into account the drop of the effective normal stress in the failure criterion. The plasticity model showed consistent results in relation to the process of reactivation of the fault zone for the models built. As a general conclusion of the study, it is stated that the consideration of fault planes or fault zones in reservoirs must be carefully defined in the geomorphological model, since the modeling of these types of geological structures requires the use of different numerical techniques to determine their hydromechanical behavior.

[pt] Em reservatórios complexos com descontinuidades geológicas como falhas, os riscos na produção de petróleo e gás pelos métodos de injeção frequentemente utilizados são maiores. Um dos fenômenos que pode acarretar graves problemas de perda de produção e acidentes ambientais é a reativação de falhas geológicas. Isto ocorre devido às variações de tensões induzidas na formação, as quais podem ser suficientemente altas para reativar as falhas e modificar significativamente o comportamento do reservatório, gerando uma das situações mais críticas na indústria de petróleo. Nessa dissertação investiga-se através do método dos elementos finitos o fenômeno de reativação de falhas com base em modelos de representação explícita da falha através de elementos de interface. Adota-se ainda para efeitos de comparação uma modelagem da falha por meio de uma zona de falha através do conceito de contínuo equivalente. Uma metodologia com base em uma análise poro-elastoplástica desacoplada que permite estimar as pressões limite para a reativação durante a produção em reservatórios de petróleo de uma maneira versátil e eficiente foi empregada nas situações investigadas através do simulador Abaqus. Para tal, foram implementadas uma série de rotinas para incorporar ao programa Abaqus novos elementos de interface, governados pelo modelo constitutivo de Mohr-Coulomb. A metodologia apresentada foi avaliada e verificada através da simulação de um modelo sintético com falha normal comparando os resultados com uma solução analítica simplificada e com os resultados obtidos com o simulador de elementos finitos AEEPECD (Costa, 1984). São apresentados alguns exemplos de aplicação representando a falha com elementos de interface e como um contínuo equivalente. Os resultados obtidos nas análises demonstram a aplicabilidade da metodologia a problemas de campos reais. / [en] In complex reservoirs with geological discontinuities, such as faults, the risk in the production of oil and gas are increase by the injection methods frequently used. The injection and depletion processes induce stress variations in the formation. These can be high enough to reactivate faults and significantly modify the behavior of the reservoir, bringing on one of the most critical situations in the oil industry. In this context, this dissertation investigates the phenomenon of fault reactivation by employing the finite element method based on an explicit representation of the fault with interface elements. In addition, a fault zone model based on an equivalent continuum approach is adopted for comparison. The pressure limits during production of oil reservoirs considering fault reactivation are determined from pore-elastoplastic uncoupled analyses with the software Abaqus. With this purpouse, interfaces elements with Mohr-Coulomb constitutive model were implemented through user subroutine in Abaqus to represent, in an approximate way, the fault behavior. In addition, other tools were developed to facilitate the generation of the models to be analyzed. The presented methodology was evaluated and verified through the simulation of a synthetic model with a normal fault. The results were compared with a simplified analytical approach and the results obtained by finite element simulator AEEPECD (Costa, 1984). Some examples of applications are presented, in which faults are represented using interface elements and alternatively, through an equivalent continuum approach. The analysis results demonstrate the applicability of the methodology to real fields.

[pt] Reservatórios de petróleo e gás estruturalmente compartimentados por falhas geológicas selantes são encontrados em diversas regiões do mundo. Durante a fase de explotação, a integridade do selo destas falhas pode ser comprometida pelas deformações decorrentes dos processos de depleção e/ou injeção de fluidos. Estas deformações, em conjunto com as propriedades físicas e geométricas das rochas e falhas presentes, podem alterar significativamente o estado de tensões do maciço rochoso fazendo com que uma falha reative e se torne hidraulicamente condutora. A esse fenômeno estão associados riscos de exsudação, perda de integridade de poços e outros potencias problemas geomecânicos. Na literatura, diversas modelagens numéricas têm sido utilizadas a fim de caracterizar e prever os fenômenos de reativação e/ou abertura de falhas geológicas. A maior parte de estas abordagens faz uso de modelos bidimensionais considerando seções críticas na hipótese de estado plano de deformação. Essas simplificações são adotadas a fim de evitar a complexidade geométrica e o alto custo computacional de uma modelagem tridimensional. No entanto, a configuração tridimensional dos planos de falha pode induzir a reativação em direção a zonas mais críticas do que aquelas contidas numa única seção. Neste trabalho apresenta-se uma metodologia para análise de reativação de falhas geológicas e discute-se a importância do uso dos modelos 3D na previsão do comportamento geomecânico de reservatórios compartimentados por falhas geológicas. São apresentados 3 modelos diferentes. O primeiro exemplo traz um modelo bidimensional apresentado na literatura, faz-se uma comparação dos resultados com representação por meio do elemento de interface, por meio do continuo equivalente e por meio de um elemento solido com fraturas embutidas. O segundo exemplo faz-se um comparativo entre a utilização de elementos quadrilaterais e triangulais para a representação da falha em modelos 3D. Para o terceiro modelo foram realizadas simulações numéricas considerando modelos 2D e 3D em um simulador in-house baseado no método dos elementos finitos. Para a representação do meio continuo foram utilizados elementos quadrilaterais para o caso 2D, e elementos hexaédricos e tetraédricos para o caso 3D. Para a representação das falhas geológicas foram utilizados elementos de interface de espessura nula segundo o critério de ruptura de Mohr-Coulomb. Da comparação dos resultados, constata-se que as análises 2D e 3D forneceram previsões de reativação similares. No entanto, as previsões de pressões de abertura foram distintas em ambos os modelos devido às diferentes trajetórias de migração de fluido. Particularmente em modelos com geometria irregular confirma-se a importância do emprego de modelo 3D. / [en] Oil and gas reservoirs that are structurally compartmented by sealing geological faults are common in several areas around the world. During production, the deformations from the processes of fluid depletion and/or injection can compromise the integrity of the seal of the faults. This deformation, together with the physical and geometrical properties from the rocks and faults can significantly change the stress state. Therefore, it might cause fault reactivation, turning it in a hydraulic conduit. Related to this phenomenon, are the exudation, loss of wellbore integrity and other potential geomechanical problems. There are several numerical modelling techniques available in literature to characterize and predict the reactivation and/or opening of geological faults. In most of these modelling approaches, bi-dimensional models are used for critical sections through the assumption of plane strain conditions. The reason for using 2D models is to avoid the geometrical complexity and the high computational costs associated to three-dimensional modeling. On the other hand, the fault planes in the three-dimensional approach can show fault reactivation in a more critical direction e than the one represented by the bi-dimensional model. In this work, a methodology is presented in order to assess geological fault reactivation. In addition, the importance of using 3D models in the prediction of the geomechanical behavior of reservoirs compartmented by geological faults is discussed. Three different models are presented. The first example is based on a two dimensional model from the literature. A comparison between approaches using interface elements, equivalent continuum elements and solid element with fractures is carried out in the first example. The second example brings a comparison between the quadrilateral and triangular elements to represent faults in a 3D model. In addition, an analysis was carried out considering 2D and 3D models using an in house software based on the finite element method. To simulate the continuum medium, quadrilateral elements are used in the 2D case and in the 3D case hexahedral and tetrahedral elements are employed. In addition, to represent the geological faults, interface elements with zero thickness are used in association with the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion. In the case study, predictions of fault reactivation were similar in the 2D and 3D models. However, fault opening pressures were different in both models, due to the 3D fluid migration path. It also confirmed the importance of using 3D models when simulating irregular geometries.

Cette étude documente la succession de phases de rift qui se sont formées le long d'une marge continentale dont l'évolution géologique a été particulièrement longue. Ce type d'évolution géologique est bien admise dans la littérature mais reste encore peu comprise en terme de processus géologiques. Ici, il est spécifiquement étudié comment ce type de rifts peut évoluer au cours du temps et il est tout particulièrement mis en évidence les processus de réactivation de failles et la formation des éléments géologiques associés dans l'évolution des bassins en extension. Cette étude résume les résultats principaux de deux projets de recherche menés sur(1) le Bassin de Porcupine (offshore irlandais) qui s'est formé pendant la propagation du système de rift nord-atlantique et (2) la région de la Mer de Corail (Papouasie Nouvelle Guinée) dont l'évolution en contexte de supra-subduction est liée à l'affrontement des plaques Pacifique et Australie. Ces deux projets de recherche discutent spécifiquement de l'enregistrement sédimentaire et de l'évolution des failles à partir de données sismiques corrélées à des données de puits, de magnétisme ou de gravimétrie.Les deux bassins ont évolué en bordure d'orogènes depuis le Paléozoïque supérieur. Il est démontré que l'extension s'est initiée au long de structures anciennes qui ont été réactivées lors de l'étalement orogénique mis en évidence par la migration de dépocentres. L'extension s'est ensuite développée de façon discontinue au cours de divers épisodes extensifs pulsés. Les premiers épisodes montrent en général des bassins étroits, plus ou moins discrets et qui sont remplis de dépôts continentaux qui passent progressivement à des environnements marins. L'extension est d'abord diffuse puis localisée le long de failles bordières qui accommodent l'ensemble de l'extension et le boudinage de la croûte. Au fur et à mesure que l'extension progresse, l'influence structurale de la croûte continentale diminue et la déformation évolue vers l'océan avant le stade ultime de déchirure continentale de façon très localisée. Le rifting se termine en général dès que les conditions aux limites changent, résultant en la production de bassins océaniques en propagateur qui sont transversaux aux bassins néoformés. Dans les marges classiques de type atlantique (p.ex. Bassin de Porcupine), ceci est lié à la propagation de croûte océanique dans des bassins plus ou moins perpendiculaires tels que le Golfe deGascogne dont l'ouverture stoppe la déformation extensive. Dans les zones en supra-subduction (par ex. Mer de Corail), la fin de l'extension est plutôt liée à un changement dans la dynamique de subduction qui peut contrôler l'ensemble de la propagation de l'océanisation.Ainsi, il apparait que l'extension migre progressivement depuis une zone initiale en réactivant d'anciennes structures orogéniques quelles que soit les conditions géodynamiques initiales. Ici, il est proposé qu'une phase de déformation souligne un mégacycle extensif durant lequel des grabens individuels, des bassins riftés ou des systèmes de rifts se forment successivement et surimposent les uns aux autres. Chaque mégacycle peut se définir sédimentologiquement et tectoniquement. La surimposition montre en général une déformation qui évolue progressivement vers l'océan par la réactivation spécifique de structures pré-existantes.L'initiation de l'extension et le passage d'un mégacycle à un autre est en général lié par un changement des conditions aux limites. / This study documents the succession of rifting phases that evolve along continental margins of longstanding history. This type of evolution, well admitted in the literature, remains poorly understood in terms of geological processes. Herein, the way rifts evolve through is specifically studied to highlight the fault reactivation processes and the formation of associated geological elements during the evolution of extensional basins. This study summarises some principal results of two research projects focussing on (1) the Porcupine Basin (offshore Ireland) that formed from the North-Atlantic rift propagation and (2) the Coral Sea region (Papua New Guinea) which the evolution within a supra-subduction context links to the convergence of the Pacific and Australian lithospheric plates. These two research projects specifically discuss the sedimentary record and the faulting evolution from seismic data correlated to wells, magnetism and gravimetry.Both basins evolved from the Late Palaeozoic on sides of orogens since the Late Palaeozoic. It is demonstrated that extension initiated along old structures that were reactivated during a general orogenic collapse evidenced by migration of depocentres. Then, extension discontinuously developed during several rifting events that are usually internally pulsed. The first rift events are usually very narrow and discreet, and evolve in a continental domain. Deformation progressively passes to localized normal faulting implying that major bounding faults progressively accommodate the extension. As long as extension progresses, the influence of continental structures tend to decrease and the deformation evolves oceanward prior continental tear. Extension generally stops once boundary conditions change, resulting in oceanic crust that may propagate transversally (oceanic propagators).Along classical Atlantic-type margins (e.g. Porcupine Basin), this links to the propagation of the oceanic crust but internal crosscutting oceanic basins (e.g. Bay of Biscay) stop the deformation prior to seafloor spreading that form the overall oceanic crust.In supra-subduction zones (e.g. Coral Sea), it is rather related to a change in the dynamics of the subduction which may control the overall direction of the spreading propagation.Thus, extension migrates progressively away from the initial deformation core by reactivating pre-existing structures, whatever geodynamic conditions are but with a general decrease in the influence of old continental fabrics. Herein, it is proposed herein that a deformation phase expresses as an extensional megacycle during which graben, basins or rift settings develop successively and overprint the ones another. Each extensional megacycle may be defined sedimentologically and tectonically. Their overlap generally shows an oceanward migration which reactivates specific pre-existing structures. The initiation of extension and the evolution from a megacycle another is generally linked associated to a variation of the boundary conditions.