The purpose of the present study was to examine goal setting strategies, locus of control beliefs and personality characteristics of swimmers (108 males and 111 females) from top twenty 1999 NCAA Division IA programs. Three questionnaires were completed: (a) Goal Setting in Sport Questionnaire (GSISQ: Weinberg, Burton, Yukelson, & Weigand, 1993), (b) the Internal, Powerful Others, Chance Scale (IPC: Levenson, 1973), and (c) the compliance subscale and six conscientiousness subscales from the NEO Personality Inventory-Revised (NEO PI-R: Costa & McCrae, 1985). Descriptive statistics from the GSISQ indicated that most of the swimmers set goals to improve overall performance (51%) and set moderately difficult goals (58%). Results associated with the IPC scale revealed that most of the swimmers attributed their sport performance to internal factors. Results pertaining to the NEO-PI-R indicated that most swimmers were highly conscientious, disciplined, purposeful, and determined.

Twenty-five adolescents' ranking of a set of equally highly valued goals on a Paired-comparisons Survey was compared with what adolescents say they are doing to achieve those goals. Results of the Paired-comparisons Survey showed that adolescents ranked career, interpersonal, and educational goals rather high and reputation and self-presentation goals rather low. Results analyzed with a contingency coefficient and biserial correlation indicated that not all number one ranked goals had the same value for a particular adolescent, and that number one ranked goals were correlated with verbal reports of concrete actions directed at achieving those goals.

A package intervention, consisting of daily-adjusted goal setting, e-mail feedback, and graphic feedback, was used in a public school attendance office to increase the efficiency with which 3 attendance clerks documented student attendance. During the intervention phase, the attendance secretary set a daily goal for each attendance clerk. This goal was a percentage of student absences to be coded and entered in the school computer program. After establishing a daily goal, the attendance secretary provided daily feedback, in the form of a written e-mail response and graphed feedback to each clerk. If the subjects had attained their daily goal, the attendance secretary also delivered a praise statement along with the e-mail feedback. Results indicated that the intervention package was ineffective in producing change in the attendance clerks' absence coding behavior.

Background: Goal setting is accepted ‘best practice’ in stroke rehabilitation however, there is no consensus about what the key components of goal setting interventions are, how they should be optimally delivered in practice and how best to involve stroke survivors in the process. This PhD by publication describes the development and initial evaluation of a theory-based goal setting and action planning framework (G-AP) to guide goal setting practice in community based stroke rehabilitation settings. Included studies: The Medical Research Council (MRC) framework for developing and evaluating complex interventions guided the development and conduct of a programme of research which included the following studies: (i) a review of the literature to identify theories of behaviour change with most potential to inform goal setting practice (Paper 1) (ii) a causal modelling exercise to map identified theoretical constructs onto a goal setting process and convening of a multi-disciplinary task group to develop the theoretical process into a Goal setting and Action Planning (G-AP) practice framework (Paper 2) (iii) a process evaluation of the G-AP framework in one community rehabilitation team (Paper 3) (iv) a United Kingdom (UK) wide survey to investigate the nature of services providing community based stroke rehabilitation across the UK and what goal setting practice is in these settings in order to understand the context into which an evaluation of the G-AP framework could be introduced (Paper 4) Main Findings: The review of the literature identified three theories of behaviour change that offered most potential to inform goal setting practice: Social Cognitive Theory, Health Action Process Approach and Goal Setting Theory. These theories contained constructs directly relevant to the goal setting practice: self-efficacy, outcome expectancies, goal attributes, action planning, coping planning and appraisal and feedback. The causal modelling and Task group exercise: (i) Informed development of the G-AP framework into a four stage, cyclical process that included (i) goal negotiation and setting (ii) planning and measuring confidence (iii) action and (iv) appraisal, feedback and decision making. (ii) Proposed mechanisms of action: successful completion of action plans resulting in incremental improvements in goal sub-skills and self-efficacy. (iii) Predicted outcomes G-AP was likely to impact on: goal attainment and improved rehabilitation outcomes. The process evaluation suggested that each stage of the G-AP framework had a distinct purpose and made a useful contribution to the overall process. Overall, G-AP was acceptable and feasible to use but implementation of novel aspects of the framework (coping planning and measuring confidence) was inconsistent and health professionals had concerns about the potential impact of unmet goals on patients’ wellbeing. Patient reports suggested that (i) the experience of goal non-attainment could facilitate adjustment to limitations resulting from stroke and (ii) feeling involved in the goal setting process can incorporate both patient-led and professional-led approaches. The survey findings highlighted the variability that exists in community based stroke rehabilitation services in the UK (e.g. the patients they see; the input they provide). Goal setting is reportedly used with all or most stroke survivors in these services; however, practice is variable and may be sub-optimal. Conclusions: G-AP is the first practice framework which has been explicitly developed to guide health professionals through a systematic, theoretically based and patient centred goal setting process in community based stroke rehabilitation. G-AP is a cyclical process that that has four key stages, proposed mechanisms of action and has shown promise as an acceptable, feasible and effective framework to guide goal setting practice. The complexity that exists within community based stroke rehabilitation services, and the variability in usual goal setting practice used within them, should be considered when designing a study to evaluate the effectiveness of G-AP in routine practice.

O objetivo do estudo foi investigar os efeitos do autoestabelecimento de metas na aprendizagem de habilidades motoras realizada com diferentes regimes de CR. Para tanto, três experimentos foram realizados, todos eles com três grupos distintos - meta autoestabelecida espontaneamente e de forma induzida e meta externamente controlada ou atribuída - para investigar a aprendizagem da habilidade motora de subir a escada de Bachman, realizada com CR, sem CR e com CR autocontrolado. Os grupos de cada experimento foram tratados como variáveis independentes. Os desempenhos dos participantes foram considerados como variáveis dependentes. As observações originais foram obtidas no ambiente de coleta do experimento por meio da anotação dos degraus subidos pelo aprendiz em cada tentativa. Os desempenhos foram analisados por meio da taxa de desempenho (TxD) caracterizada pelo número de degraus subidos dividido pelo número de degraus possíveis de serem alcançados. Foi realizado um ANOVA two way (3 grupos X 6 blocos) para medidas repetidas no fator bloco. Os dados foram organizados em blocos de 10 tentativas, sendo dois blocos referentes à fase de aquisição (AQ1, AQ30) e dois blocos referentes a cada teste (RET1, RET2, TR1, TR2). Os resultados em todos os experimentos foram semelhantes e os grupos não se diferenciaram entre si. Conclui-se que o processo de aprendizagem dos participantes que estabeleceram suas próprias metas e dos que tiveram a meta atribuída foi semelhante. Assim sendo, o estabelecimento de metas em si, seja atribuída ou externamente controlada (grupo yoked), autoestabelecida espontaneamente ou de forma induzida é favorável para a aprendizagem da tarefa de subir a escada de Bachman, e isso independe se o CR é fornecido, não é fornecido ou é autocontrolado. Conclui-se que pelo fato de tanto o estabelecimento de metas quanto o CR serem reconhecidos como fatores motivacionais eles se neutralizaram e não afetaram a aprendizagem motora de subir a escada de Bachman / This study aimed to investigate the effects of self-set goal on motor skills learning with different KR regimens. Three experiments were carried out, all of them with three distinct groups - spontaneously self-set goal and spontaneously self-directed goal and externally controlled or assigned goal - to investigate the learning of Bachman ladder climbing motor ability, performed with KR, without KR and with self-controlled KR. Groups of each experiment were the independent variables. Participants\' performances were the dependent variables. The original observations were obtained at the experiment data collection environment by notes of the steps reached by the apprentice in each attempt. Performances were analyzed by performance rate (TxD), obtained from the ratio between the number of reached steps and the highest possible step. Two way ANOVA (3 groups X 6 blocks) was performed for repeated measures in the block factor. Data were organized in blocks of 10 trials, two blocks referring to the acquisition phase (AQ1, AQ30) and two blocks referring to retention and transference tests, respectively (RET1, RET2, TR1, TR2). Results in all experiments were similar and its groups not differed from each other. In conclusion, the learning process of the participants who established their own goals and those who had the assigned goal was similar. Thus, goal setting itself, whether attributed or externally controlled (yoked group), self-established spontaneously or in an induced manner is beneficial for learning the Bachman ladder climbing task, regardless if KR is provided or not or if is self-controlled. It is conclued that as the goal setting and KR are both motivational factors, their effects were neutralized and didn\'t affect the motor learning of Bachman ladder task

The purpose of this study was to explore the impact of a writing workshop with a goal setting intervention on writing quality, quantity and self-efficacy. Students in Treatment 1 used the writing workshop process and received a teacher-supported goal setting intervention in the self-edit step of the writing process consistent with the Self-Regulated Strategy Development approach. Students in Treatment 2 received only writing workshop instruction and a generic checklist in the self-edit step. Students in the Comparator group received business-as-usual writing instruction in their language arts/social studies block. Writing measures document quality of writing through a holistic scale, quantity of writing through word counts, and the quantity of writing through parsable units. The Writer Self-Perception Scale, or WSPS, measured students' self-efficacy in writing for the Treatment 1 and Treatment 2 groups. This study expands on existing research that explores strategy interventions in writing workshops to increase student achievement in writing.

Background: Self-help interventions can be useful in improving well-being and improving symptoms of low-level mental health problems. Goal-setting has also been found to be linked to well-being. In order to maximise the benefit of any goal related self-help interventions, it may be advantageous to consider for whom they may work best. Objective. The study aimed to replicate and extend previous findings relating to the efficacy of the Goal Setting and Planning (GAP) self-help intervention for improving well-being using an active control group to allow for a more carefully controlled test of GAP. In addition to this, the study aimed to examine the potential mediating effect that the intervention has via goal progress. Lastly the study aimed to investigate whether the gains in well-being associated with the GAP intervention will be greatest for individuals scoring more highly in ‘agentic’ value scores. Method. A controlled trial of 58 participants completed pre and post measures of well-being and were also led through a goal selection exercise in which they chose two goals to work towards over a five week period. Twenty-nine participants were allocated to the intervention condition which involved working through the GAP intervention in an online format to support their goal progress. The remaining 29 participants were allocated to the control group and were asked to work towards their goals without any further support. All participants were asked to provide goal attainment scores at the end of week three and at the end of week five. Results. There was no significant effect of condition on post-intervention outcome measures (p = .87, partial h2 = .02). Post measures indicated small but not significant gains in well-being across groups. Goal progress averaged across the two assessments did not differ significantly between groups. The conditions for mediation were not met therefore it was not possible to test for the mediating effects of goal progress on well-being. Lastly, moderation analysis showed that agency value scores did not significantly moderate the effectiveness of GAP in improving scores on any of the well-being measures. Conclusion: These null-findings particularly in relation to the efficacy of the GAP intervention were unexpected given significant findings in previous trials. However, the use of an active control group allowed for a more focused examination of the efficacy of the self-help components compared to previous trials. It is suggested that the goal-setting elements of GAP completed by both conditions may account for the small gains in well-being. Limitations of the current study are discussed particularly in relation to the use of a non-clinical, mainly undergraduate student sample. It is also suggested that goal-based self-help interventions may have limited use in non- clinical student populations. Ideas for future research are made including the recruitment of participants who would potentially benefit more from an intervention to improve well-being such as GAP.

O objetivo desse estudo foi verificar a mútua relação entre percepção de competência e aprendizagem motora. Para isso, 60 indivíduos entre 18 e 35 anos de idade, de ambos os sexos, inexperientes na habilidade forehand open space do tênis de campo foram divididos em três grupos de acordo com o preenchimento do questionário PSPP de percepção de competência: (1) alta percepção, (2) média percepção e (3) baixa percepção. Ainda, cada grupo foi subdividido de acordo com a possibilidade de controlar ou não uma determinada variável que afeta a aprendizagem motora, o estabelecimento de meta. Desta forma, os três grupos foram subdivididos em grupo escolha (auto-estabelecimento de meta) e grupo espelho (meta estabelecida pelo instrutor). A tarefa consistiu no forehand do tênis de campo com o objetivo de acertar um alvo redondo posicionado na quadra adversária. Foram três blocos de 20 tentativas durante três dias de aquisição e um teste de transferência, alterando a velocidade da bolinha, aplicado 10 minutos após o último bloco de tentativas da fase de aquisição. Os indivíduos preencheram o PSPP, todos os dias antes da prática e, no último dia antes e após a prática. Os resultados mostraram que a percepção de competência influenciou a aprendizagem motora de maneira que, indivíduos com alta percepção de competência aprenderam melhor que indivíduos de baixa percepção de competência. E, que o inverso não ocorreu, isto é, a aprendizagem motora não afetou a percepção de competência. Além disso, verificou-se que os grupos espelho obtiveram melhores desempenhos e superiores percepções de competência quando comparados aos grupos escolha / The aim of this study was to verify the mutual relationship between perceived competence and motor learning. For this purpose, 60 individuals between 18 and 35 years of age, of both sexes, inexperienced in the forehand open space skill of the tennis were divided into three groups according to the questionnaire PSPP of perceived competence: (1) high perception, (2) average perception and (3) low perception. Still, each group was subdivided by considering the possibility to control or not a particular variable that affects motor learning, the goal setting. Thus, they were divided into choice group (target of self-establishment) and yoked group (target set by the instructor). The task consisted in the forehand of the tennis field in order to hit a target positioned round the opponent\'s court. There were three blocks of 20 trials over three days of acquisition and a transfer test by changing the speed of the ball. This test was applied 10 minutes after the last block of trials of the acquisition phase. The participants answered the PSPP every day before the practice, and on the last day before and after practice. Results showed that the perception of competence influenced the motor learning so that individuals with high level of perceived competence learned better than those individuals with low levels of perceived competence. And, the inverse did not occur, i.e., motor learning did not affect the perception of competence. Furthermore, it was found that the yoked groups had better performances and higher levels of perceptions when compared to choice groups

The current study investigates instructional design factors that can be manipulated to enhance learner motivation. A goal-based approach to enhancing motivation is discussed, along with current theory concerning the goal orientation an individual learner brings to an instructional situation. The efficacy of Prospect Theory as a cognitive mechanism underlying the valuation of effort toward a goal is discussed, and an experiment is presented in which goal messaging is manipulated based on the predictions of Prospect Theory as well as Goal Setting Theory. A Web-based tutorial consisting of ten sections of text, each with a recall test, was used. An ability goal orientation was found to impact section quiz scores. Both goal message framing and goal difficulty level were found to interact with an ability goal orientation to impact performance on section quizzes. A learning goal orientation was found to interact with goal difficulty to impact section quiz scores. The author concludes that while the study supports the use of goal messaging to enhance motivation, such manipulations by educators must be made in light of the goal orientations a learner brings to the instructional setting.

The purpose of the study was to evaluate the effects of goal setting and fitness trackers to increase daily step counts in adolescents with intellectual disability. An A-B-A-B withdrawal research design was implemented to evaluate the effectiveness of the intervention. The results indicated that goal setting and fitness trackers were effective in increasing daily step counts for two out of three participants.