Traditionally, the resilient modulus values obtained from repeated unconfined or triaxial compression tests are used as the elastic modulus of granular layers in structural analysis of flexible pavements. Sometimes the resilient modulus of granular materials are estimated from known California bearing ratios (CBR) or stabilometer resistance (R) values by simple regression equations. On the other hand, it is well known that stress-strain relation for unbound granular materials is nonlinear and the resilient modulus increases with the increase in stress intensity. There exist several models for stress dependent nonlinear behavior of unbound granular materials. These models are incorporated into elastic layered analysis by applying a method of successive approximations in order to get more realistic pavement responses. Kenlayer is a popular computer program incorporating nonlinear behavior of granular materials in elastic layered system. In this computer program, the resilient modulus of granular materials are varied in vertical direction only, without considering variations in radial direction. In this study, simplest model namely K-Q model for stress dependency of granular layer is applied in structural analysis of flexible pavements. This model is adopted for use in finite element analysis carried by SAP90 software. Analyses are performed over 24 different three-layered pavement structures by changing asphaltic concrete modulus values, granular base thicknesses, base materials and subgrade modulus values. Critical pavement responses namely tensile strains at the bottom of asphaltic surface layers and compressive strains on top of subgrade are obtained for each pavement by linear layered elastic, nonlinear layered elastic and nonlinear finite element solutions. The pavement lives are calculated by using selected performance equations. The results of layered systems and finite element solutions are compared. It is observed that, results obtained from finite element model and linear elastic solutions differ considerably.

Discontinuous planes often develop in soils; examples include shear bands, desiccation cracks, polygonal faults, and hydraulic fractures. These discontinuities affect the mechanical behavior (stiffness and strength) and transport properties of sediments (fluid migration and diffusion). Contrary to discontinuities in solid materials, granular materials such as soils are already separated at the particle scale. Therefore, the fundamental understanding of the development of discontinuities in soils must recognize their inherent granular nature and effective-stress dependent behavior. This research focuses on particle-scale mechanisms involved in contraction-driven shear failure due to mineral dissolution, desiccation cracks, and hydraulic fractures. Complementary experimental, analytical and numerical methods are used to study three cases. Contraction-driven polygonal fault formation under the seabed. Shear failure planes are often found in sediments that formed under near horizontal burial conditions. Particle-scale volume contraction due to mineral dissolution causes a decrease in the state of stress from the insitu K0-condition to the active failure Ka stress field. Shear strain localization follows in sediment with post-peak strain softening response. Desiccation cracks in saturated fine soils. The formation of desiccation cracks in soils is often interpreted in terms of tensile strength, which contradicts the cohesionless, effective stress dependent frictional behavior of fine grained soils. Experimental results monitored using high resolution time lapse photography point to a proper effective stress-dependent mechanism centered on the invasion of the air-water interface membrane. Miscible and immiscible fluid-driven fracture formation. Hydraulic fracture in granular materials cause grain separation and the development of conduits for preferential fluid flow leading to fracture formation due to the forced invasion of either immiscible or miscible fluids. Capillary, seepage, and skeletal interparticle forces define particle scale mechanisms at the fracture tip. Numerical simulations confirm that the effective stress remains in compression everywhere throughout the granular medium in the three localization mechanisms.

<p>In this work, we have focused on the jamming properties of systems composed of semi-2D elliptical shaped particles. In order to study these systems, we have performed three types of experiments: Couette shear, biaxial isotropic compression, and biaxial pure shear. In each experimental scheme, we take data for both systems of ellipses an bi-disperse disks, in order to probe the effect of broken spherical symmetry at the particle scale, on the global behavior. We use two synchronized cameras to capture the flow of particles and the local stress at the same time.</p><p>In Couette experiments, we study the rheological properties, as well as the stress fluctuations for very large strains (up to 20 revolutions of the inner wheel). The system is sheared for densities below the isotropic jamming point (point J). From these studies we learn that over a small range of packing fractions, ($0.85 \leq \phi \leq 0.86$),</p><p>systems of ellipses demonstrate exceptionally slow dynamical evolution when they are sheared. For</p><p>fixed density, and starting from an essentially unstressed state, the application of shear strain leads to</p><p>first a growth of average particle displacements in the system through a Reynolds dilatancy effect,</p><p>and then for very large strains, a steady decrease in particle displacements. In an intermediate</p><p>range of shear strains, the system exists in effectively meta-stable states for a very long time</p><p>before relaxing to an unjammed state, in which the flow of particles stops completely, and the</p><p>stress fluctuations drop to zero. The strain scale for this relaxation depends on the global packing</p><p>fraction. We characterize this slow dynamics by measuring the evolution of mean velocity, density,</p><p>and orientational order throughout the experiments. In a similar set of experiments performed on</p><p>disks, slow relaxation was observed as well. However, the increasing average displacement build-up</p><p>before relaxation, which was observed in ellipses, did not occur for disks. This suggests that the</p><p>slow relaxation towards an unjammed state in ellipses is associated with the possibility of small and</p><p>slow changes in their orientations, which then allow a more efficient packing.</p><p>In order to study the stress fluctuations, we implement photoelastic properties of the particles. We are able to track the $g^{2}$ (a measure of local stress) of each particle throughout the entire experiment. </p><p>Unlike disks, the power spectra of $g^2$, $P(\omega)$, is not rate invariant for ellipses. In other words, all curves of $R P(\omega)$ vs. $\omega / R$ (where $R$ is the shear rate) with different values of $R$, collapse to a single curve for disks, but not for ellipses.</p><p>The rate invariance of spectra was previously studied for sheared spherical glass beads and semi-2D pentagonal particles. This is the first experimental work in which the fluctuations of granular systems composed of elongated particles is addressed. </p><p>We have also studied the formation and destruction of stress avalanches during Couette shear in both systems of disks and ellipses. In particular, we introduce measures which characterize the size and shape of stress avalanches. Analysis of these measures shows that the build-up and release of stress in both systems of disks and ellipses have similar distributions which indicates that the deformation of particles in a Couette cell does not resemble stick-slip behavior. We also find that the build-up and release of stress is faster is larger avalanches.</p><p>Cyclic isotropic compression is performed on semi-2D systems of bi-disperse disks and identical ellipses with aspect ratio 2, which are composed of photoelastic particles. In each compression cycle, the system is compressed with a total strain of $1.6\%$ and then expanded to the initial state. After completion of each half cycle, the system is allowed to relax, then imaged by two synchronized cameras. The packing fraction, $\phi$, of compressed states are chosen above the isotopic jamming point (point J). In both systems of disks and ellipses, we observed relaxation of global stress over long compression cycles. We find that the global stress drops with a power law over time ($\sigma \sim C t^{-A}$). The exponent of decay, $A$, drops linearly with increasing $\phi$, and hits zero at $\phi \simeq 0.89$ for disks, and $\phi \simeq 0.93$ for ellipses. Above these packing fractions, the system is stable with respect to its global stress. </p><p>In order to understand the origin of this slow stress dilation, we have studied the structural changes of the system, including Falk-Langer measures of affine and non-affine deformations, as well as average contact per particle.</p> / Dissertation

Honors Project--Smith College, Northampton, Mass., 2009. / Includes bibliographical references (p. 34).

Granular materials, large collections of macroscopic particles, are something that is commonly found in both nature and industry. Examples of such can be sand, ore, grains, seeds or snow. Simulations of granular materials are important in many industrial cases. It gives an opportunity to study the behavior of the particles as they interact with machinery and gives an indication of how efficient new designs perform. In some areas, such as vehicle-terrain interaction, plastic deformation of the particles can be an important factor. The Ume˚a based company Algoryx Simulation can simulate granular materials in their physics engine AGX Dynamics using a nonsmooth discrete element approach (NDEM), but currently lack support for plastic deformation. The purpose of this thesis is to implement a plastic contact model in the source code of AGX Dynamics, such that plastic deformation can be observed. The implementation was first tested for single particle-particle compression where measured contact forces were compared to theoretical models. Uniaxial compression tests were performed for bulk testing, filling a cylinder with particles and compressing them while monitoring the axial stress and strain. The results from the single particle compression correspond well to theory, giving the correct plastic deformation for a given contact force and correctly illustrates the effects of changing different model parameters. Plastic deformation could also be observed in the results from bulk testing. Additionally, it was observed that the current version of the implementation is best suited for simulating either very cohesive materials, where particles stick to each other when colliding, or cohesionless materials, where colliding particles are separated after impact. Additional research is needed to study how the separation velocity for colliding particles should be updated in a way that is consistent with the plastic model parameters and experimental results.

Many everyday materials, broadly classified as ``particulate media'', are at the heart of many industries and natural phenomena. Examples range from the storage and transport of bulk foods and aggregates such as grains and coal; the processing of pharmaceutical pills and the grinding coffee beans; to the mitigation and cost control of life-threatening events like landslides, earthquakes, and silo failures. The common theme connecting all these phenomena is the mechanical stability of the granular material that arises from interactions at the microscopic level of the grain scale, and how this influences collective properties at the bulk, macroscopic scale. In this dissertation, we present an extensive study of the mechanical properties of a physics-based model of granular particle systems in two dimensions using computer simulations. Specifically, we study the dynamics of an intruder particle that is driven through a dense, disordered packing of particles. This practical technique has the benefit of being amenable to experimental application which we expect will motivate future studies in the area. We find the `microrheology' of the intruder can be traced back to the properties of underlying, original, unperturbed packing, thereby providing a method to characterize the mechanical properties of the material that may otherwise be unavailable. To perform this study, we initially created mechanically stable granular packings of bidisperse discs, for several orders of magnitude of particle friction coefficient $\mu$, over a range in packing densities, or packing fractions $\phi$, in the vicinity of the critical packing fraction $\phi_c$, the density below which the packing is no longer stable. This range in $\phi$ translates to a range in packing pressures $P$, spanning several orders of magnitude down to the $P\rightarrow 0$ limit. For each packing, we apply a driving force to the intruder probe particle and find the critical force $F_{c}$, the minimum force required to induce motion of the probe as it is dragged through the system. We find that $F_{c}(\mu)$ for the different friction packings, scales with the packing pressure $P$ as a power-law according to: $F_{c}(\mu) - F_{c}^{o}(\mu) \sim P^{\beta(\mu)}$. The power-law exponent, $\beta(\mu)$ becomes friction dependent, but approaches the value, $\beta(\mu\to0) = 1.0 \pm 0.1$ in the zero-friction limit. $F_{c}^{o}(\mu)$ is the value of $F_{c}$ in the limit $P \to 0$, that similarly depends on the friction coefficient as, $F_{c}^{o}(\mu) \to 0$, when $\mu \to \infty$. We use this property of $F_{c}^{o}(\mu)$ to characterize the mechanical properties of different frictional packings. Another focus of this study is the `microrheology' of the intruder through force-velocity dependencies in $\mu=0$ systems at different $P$. For this case, the intruder is driven through the packing at a steady-state velocity $$, for driving forces above the critical force $F_D > F_c$. We introduce a scaling function that collapses the force-velocity curves onto a single master curve. This power law scaling of the collapsed curve as $P\rightarrow 0$ is reminiscent of a continuous phase transition, reinforcing the notion that the mechanical state of the system exhibits critical-like features. Furthermore, we also find an alternative scaling collapse of the form: $- \sim (F_{D} - F_{c})^{\alpha}$, where $$ represents a constant velocity term in the limit of small excess forcing, and the critical force $F_{c}$ now appears as fitting parameter that matches our explicit calculations. Thence, we are able to extract $F_{c}$ from a driven probe without a-priori having any knowledge about the state of the system. To further investigate the transition of the system through the different intruder force perturbations, we implemented a coarse graining (CG) technique that transforms our discrete particle interaction force information into continuous stress fields. Through this methodology, we are able to calculate the kinetic and contact stresses as the intruder is driven through the system. We are able to qualify and quantify the directional and distance dependencies of the stress response of the packing due to the driven probe via radial and azimuthal stress calculations. In particular, we find how the stress response not only captures the wake region behind the driven intruder, but also how the stress decays in the forward direction of the intruder, which follows universal behavior.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-12-02T11:16:53Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2014-06-26Bitstream added on 2014-12-02T11:21:15Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 000792406.pdf: 9393409 bytes, checksum: 9ca28119e89c69a91acc4fb6ac17c9e9 (MD5) / O processo de lixamento é indispensável para situações onde os processos anteriores de fabricação não foram capazes de garantir as dimensões finais da peça produzida ou quando a qualidade superficial desejada não foi atingida. Este processo é muito usado em indústrias de painéis e de móveis, no entanto, quase sempre é empregado de forma empírica, sem o conhecimento adequado. No presente trabalho analisou-se a influência da granulometria, do desgaste abrasivo e do material abrasivo no lixamento plano da Corymbia citriodora e do Pinus elliottii. O objetivo do trabalho foi estudar e compreender a correlação entre os fatores de entrada (granulometria da lixa, desgaste do abrasivo, tipo do abrasivo) sobre as variáveis de saída (potência de lixamento, emissão acústica, vibração, rugosidade e integridade superficial) no processo de lixamento. O sistema desenvolvido e utilizado foi composto por uma lixadeira plana, um sistema de aquisição de dados e um sistema eletromecânico de ensaios com acionamento pneumático. Para a análise da influência da granulometria, do desgaste e do tipo do abrasivo foram utilizadas três granulometrias (80, 100 e 120 mesh), três tipos de grão abrasivos (óxido de alumínio, carbeto de silício e óxido de zircônio), três níveis de desgaste do grão abrasivo (sem desgaste, desgaste intermediário, desgaste severo) e duas espécies de madeira sendo realizadas seis repetições para cada configuração de ensaio, totalizando 324 ensaios. Os resultados foram analisados estatisticamente através de análise de variância (ANOVA) com nível de significância de 5%, acompanhado do teste de Tukey, que compara as variações aos pares. O sistema eletromecânico de ensaios de lixamento projetado mostrou-se bastante eficiente na aquisição dos dados. O desgaste do grão abrasivo influenciou significativamente ... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / The sanding process is indispensable for situations where the manufacturing processes were not sufficient to ensure the final dimensions or when the desired surface quality was not achieved. This process is frequently used in panels and furniture industries, however, is almost always used empirically, without the proper knowledge. In the present study we analyzed the influence of particle size, abrasive wear and the abrasive type on Corymbia citriodora and Pinus elliottii sanding. The objective was to study and understand the correlation between the input factors (particle size, abrasive wear, abrasive type) on the output variables (power sanding, acoustic emission, vibration, roughness and surface integrity) in sanding process. The system developed and used consists of a flat sander, a data acquisition system and an electromechanical testing system with pneumatic actuation. It was used three particle sizes (80, 100 and 120 mesh), three types of grain abrasives (aluminum oxide, silicon carbide and zirconium oxide), three levels of abrasive wear (no wear, intermediate wear, severe wear) and two species of wood for the analysis, it was made six replications for each test configuration, totaling 324. The results were statistically analyzed using variance analysis (ANOVA) with a significance level of 5%, followed by the Tukey test, which compares the variations in pairs. The electromechanical testing system designed sanding proved to be very efficient in data acquisition. The abrasive wear influenced significantly roughness in both species and all abrasive grains types. The variables that wear influenced less were acoustic emission and vibration. The best values of roughness were obtained for aluminum oxide grains and the worst for silicon carbide grains. The SEM images and topography were important to understand the interaction of the abrasive grain with wood surface

Made available in DSpace on 2014-12-02T11:16:53Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2014-06-25Bitstream added on 2014-12-02T11:21:15Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 000792529.pdf: 2471005 bytes, checksum: f2e48667118340d639d8f634d2841123 (MD5) / Métodos tradicionais de proteção de madeira empregam produtos químicos que são considerados tóxicos e podem prejudicar a saúde humana e o meio ambiente. O aumento da preocupação com as questões ambientais, com a saúde dos operadores de processos de tratamento preservativo e dos consumidores da madeira, e ainda com o reaproveitamento destas madeiras tratadas após seu uso, tem gerado a necessidade de desenvolvimento de tratamentos preservativos menos agressivos à saúde e ao meio ambiente. O objetivo deste estudo foi testar a potencialidade de três condições de amostras de Tall Oil, em duas espécies para as madeiras de reflorestamento: Pinus elliottii e Eucalyptus grandis. As alternativas de Tall Oil testadas foram o Crude Tall Oil (CTO), que é um subproduto no processamento de polpa de coníferas resinosas, para produção do papel Kraft, e dois subprodutos do refino do CTO, o Ligth Oil (LO) e o Óleo Ejetor (OE). Estas alternativas foram testadas em solução isopropílica a 25% e em combinação com ácido bórico em solução aquosa a 2%. Foram realizados ensaios de hidrofobicidade e de exposição ao fungo de podridão branca (Trametes versicolor (L.; Fr.) Pilát) nas amostras com os sistemas de proteção aplicados. O ensaio de hidrofobicidade foi realizado pela medida do ângulo de contato em um Goniômetro. O ensaio de apodrecimento foi conduzido dispondo os corpos de prova tratados em solo com o fungo inoculado. Os resultados obtidos mostraram que as condições de Tall Oil possuem potencialidade para proteger a madeira contra ataque do fungo de podridão branca e esta proteção não está diretamente relacionada com o grau de hidrofobicidade do tratamentos aplicados nas amostras de madeira. Os resultados mais satisfatórios foram obtidos com os tratamentos com Óleo Ejetor, que apresentou hidrofobicidade de 55%, tanto para ... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Traditional methods of wood protection employ chemicals that are considered toxic and can harm human health and the environment. Increasing concern about environmental issues, with the health of process operators to preservative treatment of timber and consumers, and with the reuse this timber treated after use, has generated the need for development of less aggressive treatments condoms to health and the environment. The aim of this study was to test the capability of three conditions of samples from Tall Oil in two species for reforestation wood: Pinus elliottii and Eucalyptus grandis. The alternatives were tested tall oil Crude tall oil (CTO), which is a by-product in the processing of coniferous softwood pulp for the production of kraft paper and two by-products from the refining of CTO, the ligth Oil (LO) and the Oil ejector (OE). These alternatives were tested isopropyl and 25% solution in combination with boric acid in a 2% aqueous solution. In samples with the systems of protection; tests hydrophobicity and exposure to white rot fungus (Fr.) Pilát Trametes versicolor (L.) were performed. The hydrophobicity assay was performed by measuring the contact angle on a goniometer. The test was conducted rotting providing the specimens treated soil inoculated with the fungus. The most satisfactory results were obtained with treatments with Ejector Oil, which showed hydrophobicity of 55%, both for pine as for eucalyptus, and mass loss of 39.07% for eucalyptus and 39.18% for pine after test exposure apodrecedor fungus. And for systems with boric acid mass loss was lower, being for AB + OE mass loss was 19.05% for eucalyptus and 19.96% for pine; and the OE / AB system and 13.43% for eucalyptus and 14.16% for pine

Dans cette thèse, deux approches de caractérisation d'un comportement mécanique sont présentées, l'une sur la banquise Arctique, l'autre sur les milieux granulaires. Premièrement, une analyse de type mécanique des milieux continus est réalisée sur la banquise de manière à extraire la physique qui, au premier ordre, explique l'augmentation récente des vitesses de dérive et de déformation. Une méthode originale pour accéder aux propriétés mécaniques de la couverture de glace aux grandes échelles de temps et d'espace, c'est à dire sur tout le bassin Arctique et au cours de ces 40 dernières années, est proposée en quantifiant l'amplitude de la composante inertielle du mouvement des bouées enchâssées dans la glace. Le point fort de cette méthode réside dans le fait qu'elle apporte des informations sur la friction moyenne de la couverture de glace qui, jusqu'à maintenant, n'étaient pas disponible à ces échelles spatio-temporelles. A partir d'un modèle simple, nous montrons qu'un affaiblissement mécanique de la banquise, se traduisant par des changements dans le degré de fracturation de la couverture de glace, intervient au premier ordre dans la cinématique et la dynamique des glaces de mer. Cette observation souligne la nécessité de prendre en compte cette composante de manière appropriée dans les modèles ainsi que de développer des outils spécifiques pour accéder à cette quantité à l'échelle locale. Deuxièmement, une analyse de type mécanique statistique est adoptée dans l'étude numérique et expérimentale des milieux granulaires frottants sous compression. La quantification des hétérogénéités associées aux champs de contrainte et de déformation ainsi que leur lien avec le comportement mécanique macroscopique de ce matériau est étudiée. Aux petites échelles de temps, de fortes concentrations de contrainte et de déformation sont mises en évidence. De plus, des propriétés multi-échelles spécifiques caractérisent ces champs à l'instabilité macroscopique. Ainsi, à ce point d'instabilité, ces champs de déformation observés aux petites échelles de temps présentent des propriétés très différentes de celles présentées par la bande de cisaillement, habituellement caractérisée aux grandes échelles de temps. Le lien entre ces deux comportements caractéristiques reste à élucider. / Two approaches to study the mechanical behaviour of Arctic sea ice in one hand, and of granular media on the other hand, are presented in this thesis. First, a continuum mechanics analysis is conducted on sea ice in order to extract the relevant physics that, to the first order, explains the observed recent acceleration of sea ice drift and deformation. An original method to determine the mechanical properties of the sea ice cover at large time and spatial scales, i.e. over the whole Arctic basin and over 40 years of record, is proposed by quantifying the amplitude of inertial motion of ice drifters. This method allows to estimate an average ice cover friction, that is currently not accessible through other means at those large spatio-temporal scales. We show that a genuine mechanical weakening of the Arctic sea ice, associated to changes in the degree of fragmentation of the ice cover, comes into play to explain the observed changes in terms of sea ice kinematics and dynamics. This underlines the necessity to take into account this component in modelling studies, as well as to develop specific tools to measure an internal friction at local scales. Second, a statistical mechanics analysis is adopted in order to characterize the mechanical heterogeneities associated to the macroscopic behaviour of frictional granular materials submit- ted to compressive loading. From numerical modeling and experimental studies, quantitative estimates of heterogeneities that develop in the shear stress and strain fields are provided. At short timescales, intense stress and strain localization is reported, associated at the macrosco- pic instability to specific multi-scale properties. Thus, at this flow instability, these strain field properties significantly differ from the shear band formation observed after the instability when considering large time scales. The connection between these two characteristic features remains to be understood.

Ce travail de recherche présente la modélisation du comportement mécanique des matériaux granulaires cohésifs par une approche multi-échelle en combinant la méthode des éléments finis (FEM) et la méthode des éléments discrets (DEM). A l'échelle microscopique, la DEM est utilisé pour modéliser un assemblage granulaire alors qu'à l'échelle macroscopique, la solution numérique est obtenue par la FEM. Afin de faire un pont entre l'échelle micro et macroscopique, un Volume Elementaire Représentative (VER) est considéré dans lequel la contrainte suite à une déformation imposée résulte d'un calcul numérique de type DEM. Par cette manière, la loi numérique constitutive est déterminé par la modélisation de la microstructure, et par conséquent prenant en compte les natures des matériaux granulaires. Après avoir achevé à construire la loi numérique, on propose d'étudier les propriétés de cette loi incrémentale en terme des enveloppes de réponse Gudehus, et des analyses en bande de cisaillement. Cet étude nous permet d'avoir une vision générale sur cette nouvelle loi. Dans cette contribution numérique multi-échelle, en implémentant la loi numérique DEM dans un code de calcul par éléments finis, un outil numérique est obtenu et utilisé à simuler des essais menés au laboratoire. Des résultats obtenus produisant la localisation de la déformation en bandes de cisaillement seront analysés et discutés. / This thesis presents a multi-scale modeling approach of cohesive granuar materials in combining the Finite Element Method (FEM) and the Discrete Element Method (DEM). At microscopic level, a DEM is used to model dense grains packing. At the macroscopic level, the numerical solution is obtained by a FEM. In order to bridge the micro and macro scales, the concept of Representative Elementary Volume (REV) is applied, in which the average REV stress and the consistent tangent operators are obtained in each macroscopic integration point as the results of DEM's simulation. In this way, the numerical constitutive law is determined through the detailed modeling of the microstructure, therefore taking into account the nature of granular materials. After completing the building of numerical law, we aim to investigate the properties of this incremental law in terms of the response envelopes Gudehus and the shear band analysis. This study allows us to better understand this new constitutive law. On the side of multi-scale numerical contribution, the numerical law DEM is implemented in a finite elements code. The numerical tool obtained is used to simulate a series of biaxial test in plane strain condition and the hollow cylinder test in laboratory. Macroscopic strain localization is observed and discussed.