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Kolfiber CF kan användas som positiv elektrod i strukturella batterier om de beläggs med ett aktivt material, såsom litiumjärnfosfat LFP. Fördelen med att använda kolfibrer som elektroder är att de samtidigt kan bära mekanisk belastning och lagra elektrisk energi. Det finns flera tekniker för att belägga kolfibrerna. I denna rapport kommer en jämförelse att göras av fibrer som belagts med elektroforetisk deponering, sprutbeläggning och pulverimpregnering. Elektrokemisk karakterisering kommer att avgöra och utvärdera prestandan hos dessa tre tekniker. Cellerna som monterades med sprutbeläggda och pulverimpregnerade prover visade de högsta kapaciteterna, 141 mAh/g vid C/10 respektive 139 mAh/g vid C/14. Vidare testning utfördes på de pulverimpregnerade proverna för att studera elektriska egenskaper och beteende, såsom elektrokemisk impedansspektroskopi EIS, cyklisk voltammetri CV och långtids-cykling. Svepelektronmikroskop SEM analys genomfördes för att observera ytmorfologin och förstå hur de elektrokemiska testerna kan påverka fibrernas yta. / Carbon Fibres (CF) can be used as the positive electrode in structural batteries if they are coated with an active material such as Lithium Iron Phosphate Oxide (LFP). The advantage of using carbon fibres as electrodes is that they simultaneously can carry the mechanical load and store electrical energy. There are several techniques to coat the carbon fibres. In this report, a comparison will be made on fibres coated using electrophoretic deposition, spray coating and powder impregnation. Electrochemical characterisation will determine and evaluate the performance of these three techniques. Cells assembled with spray-coated and powder-impregnated samples delivered the highest capacities, 141 mAh/g at C/10 and 139 mAh/g at C/14, respectively. Further testing was conducted on the powder-impregnated samples to study the electrical properties and behaviour, such as Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS), Cyclic Voltammetry (CV) and long-term cycling. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) analysis was performed to see the surface morphology and understand how electrochemical testing can affect the surface of the fibres.

Syftet med denna studie är att forska i hur olika rederier och besättningar förhåller sig till avsaknaden av regelverk gällande transport av fordon med litiumjonbatterier. Tidigare forskning visar att bränder i litiumjonbatterier skiljer sig från bränder i konventionella bilar då det finns risk för att termisk rusning initieras i cellerna vilket medför att återantändningsrisken är stor och branden svårsläckt med begränsade mängder vatten. Metoden som har använts är semistrukturerade intervjuer i syfte att få en dialog med välutvecklade svar mellan respondenten och forskarna genom en intervjuguide. En rederirepresentant och en befälhavare från tre olika ro-ro rederier som vartdera trafikerar tre olika fartområden intervjuades. Resultatet visar att det råder delade meningar från branschen om regelverk och risken med att transportera elbilar beroende på vilket fartområde och typ av ro-ro fartyg som transporten bedrivs på. Fortsatt forskning inom effektiva släckmetoder med fokus på släckning av elbilar ombord på ro-ro fartyg rekommenderas. / The purpose of this study is to research how different shipping companies and crews relate to the absence of regulations. Previous research shows that fires in lithium-ion batteries differ from fires in conventional cars because there is a risk of thermal runaway being initiated in the cells, which means that the risk of re-ignition is high, and the fire is difficult to extinguish with limited amounts of water. The method used is a semi-structured interview aimed at creating a dialogue with well-developed responses between the respondent and the researchers through an interview guide. A shipping company representative and a captain from three different ro-ro shipping companies with three different trafficked zones were interviewed. The results show that there are differing opinions within the industry regarding regulations and the risk of transporting electric cars depending on the speed range and type of ro-ro vessel used for transportation. More research on how to effectively extinguish fires in electric cars onboard ro-ro ships is recommended.

Qu’il s’agisse de s’éclairer, de se chauffer, de s’alimenter sainement, de se soigner, de se véhiculer, de s’informer ou encore de se distraire, l’énergie a toujours été au centre des préoccupations et sa conversion en électricité est désormais omniprésente. Le lourd constat environnemental à la suite de l’exploitation intensive de sources fossiles a mené à une indispensable transition vers les énergies renouvelables. Souvent intermittentes, il est nécessaire de les stocker, généralement grâce à des batteries. Parmi les différentes technologies, cette thèse traite des batteries lithium-ion pour le stockage de l’énergie solaire. En effet, cette thèse a pour but l’étude d’un dispositif « tout-en-un » capable de convertir l’énergie solaire et de la stocker. Pour se faire, un semi-conducteur organique photoactif de la famille des pérylènes diimides (PDI) a été emprunté au domaine des cellules solaires organiques et couplé à un matériau phare et durable des batteries lithium-ion : le LiFePO4 (LFP). Cette thèse se décompose en trois parties selon une méthodologie qui vise à la compréhension fondamentale de transferts électroniques photoinduits, en amont du développement d’un dispositif. Pour aboutir à une preuve de concept, une étude de l’extinction de fluorescence du PDI en présence de LFP a d’abord été menée, afin de vérifier l’injection d’électrons en provenance du matériau de batterie dans le semi-conducteur excité. Ce travail a été fait en solution puis à l’état solide, pour la mise au point d’une photoélectrode. Ces deux études ont permis de comprendre les pré-requis du matériau d’électrode positive de batterie pour qu’il soit photoxydé, puis des résultats de spectroscopie Raman ont démontré l’importance des interfaces dans la mise en contact du PDI et du LFP. Finalement, forts d’une première preuve expérimentale de photocharge au sein d’un dispositif « photobatterie », le PDI a été polymérisé et son implémentation dans une photoélectrode de batterie lithium-ion a pu être optimisée. Ses rôles multiples (photoactif, photooxydant, conducteur électronique et liant) ont permis de générer un photocourant sans que cela ne soit au détriment du fonctionnement de la batterie. / Converting energy to electricity is ubiquitous because it plays a vital role in daily life whether for lighting, heating, health, transport, information or entertainment. Societal energy demands are often met with fuel fossils that have had deleterious environmental effects. Transitioning to renewables can mitigate these adverse outcomes. Renewable energy is often intermittent, requiring it to be stored for use during periods when the energy is unavailable. Batteries have become viable means to this end. Among the different technologies, this manuscript examines lithium-ion batteries for solar energy storage. Indeed, this work puts forward an all-in-one device: a device capable of converting and storing solar energy. To this end, a well-known photoactive organic semi-conductor in solar cells (perylene diimide; PDI) was coupled to a conventional and durable electrode material (LiFePO4; LFP) for lithium-ion batteries. This manuscript is divided into three discrete parts following the methodology to demonstrate the fundamental underlying processes of the future all-in-one device before its development: light harvesting and electron transfer. Towards a proof of concept, the thesis systematically studied the light mediated processes in solution, in the solid state, and in an operating device. Initial studies examined the fluorescence quenching of PDI with LFP. This was to validate the injection of electrons from the battery material to the photoexcited semi-conductor indeed occurred. The same emission studies were applied in the solid state for developing a photoelectrode. The two studies generated knowledge about the compositional and architectural requirements of the positive electrode material for it be photoxidized by PDI. Raman spectroscopy further demonstrated the importance of interfaces between the battery material and the organic semiconductor. These enabled a photocharge when the photobattery was illuminated. The PDI was next polymerized and enabled a photocurrent in the battery, courtesy of its collective properties (light harvester, photo-oxidant, electronic conductor, and binder).

Switching from fossil-fuel-powered vehicles to electric vehicles has become an international focus in the pursuit of combatting climate change. Regardless, the adoption of electric vehicles has been slow, in part, due to range anxiety. One solution to mitigating range anxiety is to provide a more accurate state of charge (SOC) and range estimation. SOC estimation of lithium-ion batteries for electric vehicle application is a well-researched topic, yet minimal tools and code exist online for researchers and students alike. To that end, a publicly available Kalman filter-based SOC estimation function is presented. The MATLAB function utilizes a second-order resistor-capacitor equivalent circuit model. It requires the SOC-OCV (open circuit voltage) curve, internal resistance, and equivalent circuit model battery parameters. Users can use an extended Kalman filter (EKF) or adaptive extended Kalman filter (AEKF) algorithm and temperature-dependent battery data. A practical example is illustrated using the LA92 driving cycle of a Turnigy battery at multiple temperatures ranging from -10C to 40C. Current range estimation methods suffer from inaccuracy as factors including temperature, wind, driver behaviour, battery voltage, current, SOC, route/terrain, and much more make it difficult to model accurately. One of the most critical factors in range estimation is the battery. However, most models thus far are represented using equivalent circuit models as they are more widely researched. Another limitation is that any machine learning-based range estimation is typically based on historical driving data that require odometer readings for training. A range estimation algorithm using a machine learning-based voltage estimation model is presented. Specifically, the long short-term memory cell in a recurrent neural network is used for the battery model. The model is trained with two datasets, classic and whole, from the experimental data of four Tesla/Panasonic 2170 battery cells. All network training is completed on SHARCNET, a resource provided by Canada Compute to researchers. The classically trained network achieved an average root mean squared error (RMSE) of 44 mV compared to 34 mV achieved by the network trained on the whole dataset. Based on the whole dataset, all test cases achieve an end range estimation of less than 5 km with an average of 0.29 km. / Thesis / Master of Applied Science (MASc)

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Litiumjonbatterier (LIB) är viktiga komponenter i dagens teknologi och används för att driva en mängd olika elektroniska system, allt från datorer och mobiltelefoner till bilar och flygplan. Eftersom efterfrågan på effektiv energilagring fortsätter att växa finns ett fortsatt behov för forskning och utveckling inom området. Denna rapport undersöker hårt kol, ett lovande material för anoder i litiumjonbatterier och andra alkali-jon batterier. I likhet med grafit är hårt kol ett kolbaserat material som inte är en väldefinierad allotropp utan en komplex blandning med avseende på både hybridiseringstillstånd och långdistansordning.  Därför är den mycket dåligt definierat. Ändå är hårt kol ett önskvärt material eftersom det kan produceras från förnybara resurser samt på grund av dess kompatibilitet med natrium, vilket möjliggör natriumjonbatterier. I den här studien har elektroder av hårt kol syntetiserats och litierats i olika grader och sedan studerats med 7Li NMR-spektroskopi där både spektra och longitudinella relaxationshastigheter mättes. Vid lägre litieringsnivåer observerades tydliga smala 7Li toppar inom intervallet 4-16 ppm, vilket indikerar förekomsten av joniskt litium. Vid högre litieringsnivåer framträdde en bred topp vid 61 ppm. Utseendet av denna topp, tillsammans med en hög Knight-skift, indikerar närvaron av kvasi-metalliskt litium. Det är värt att notera att detta kvasi-metalliska litium finns i de oordnade och porösa områdena hos hård kol. 7Li longitudinella relaxationshastigheter, som rapporterar om jonisk dynamik, registrerades vid olika temperaturer och från det observerade temperaturberoendet beräknades den genomsnittliga aktiveringsenergin för de involverade joniska rörelserna. Intressant nog visade sig denna aktiveringsenergi vara lägre jämfört med den i PAN-baserade kolfibrer och grafit, som båda uppvisar en högre grad av ordning. Denna observation tyder på ett samband mellan lokal oordning och snabbare jondynamik. / Lithium-ion batteries (LIB) are vital components of modern technology, powering a wide range of devices from computers and cell phones to cars and aeroplanes. As the demand for efficient energy storage continues to grow, research and development in the field of lithium-ion batteries remain active. This report focuses on the investigation of hard carbon, a promising anode material for lithium-ion batteries and other alkali-ion batteries. Akin to graphite, hard carbon is a carbon-based material that is not a well-defined allotrope but a complex mixture with regard to both hybridization state and long-range order. Hence it is very poorly defined. Yet, hard carbon is a desirable material as it can be produced from renewable resources and because of its compatibility with sodium, allowing for sodium-ion batteries. In this study, hard carbon electrodes were synthesised and lithiated to various degrees and then studied with 7Li NMR spectroscopy where both spectra and longitudinal relaxation rates were measured.   At lower lithiation levels, distinct narrow 7Li peaks were observed within the 4-16 ppm range, indicating the presence of ionic lithium. At higher lithiation levels a broad peak at 61 ppm emerged. The appearance of this peak, along with a high Knight shift, signifies the presence of quasi-metallic lithium, presumably in the more disordered and more porous regions of hard carbon. The 7Li longitudinal relaxation rates, reporting on ionic dynamics, were recorded at different temperature and from the observed temperature dependence the average activation energy for the involved ionic motions was calculated. Interestingly, this activation energy was found to be lower compared to that for PAN-based carbon fibres and graphite, both of which exhibit a higher degree of order. This observation suggests a correlation between local disorder and faster ion dynamics.

In this thesis, a simulation model developed in MATLAB® in consideration of system losses based on lithium ion-battery is presented. The purpose of the simulation model is to investigate peak shaving potential in the residential distribution network. In other word to determine an optimal threshold limit and battery capacity depending on if the battery system is placed at the transformer or household level. In the report there were economic calculations executed showing that profitability of investing in a battery system depends on the threshold limit and battery capacity. / I denna rapport presenteras analys av toppeffektreducering med ett simuleringsprogram baserad på litium-jon batteri med hänsyn till systemförlust. Simuleringsmodellen är uppbyggd i MATLAB® där metoder som Coulomb counting implementerades. Syftet med simuleringsprogrammet är att definiera en optimal tröskelgräns samt batterikapacitet på transformator- och hushållsnivån. I rapporten utfördes ekonomiska beräkningar som tyder på att lönsamheten för investering av ett batterisystem beror på tröskelgräns och batterikapacitet.

Le polymère poreux (PM) associe les avantages double des matériaux poreux et des polymères, ayant la structure unique de pore, la porosité supérieure et la densité inférieure, ce qui possède une valeur d’application importante dans les domaines de l'adsorption, le soutien de catalyseur, le séparateur de batterie, la filtration, etc. Actuellement, il existe plusieurs façons de préparer le PM, comme la méthode de gabarit, la méthode de séparation de phase, la méthode d'imagerie respiratoire, etc. Chacune des méthodes ci-dessus existe ses propres avantages, mais la préparation à grande échelle de PM à structure de pore contrôlable et aux fonctions spécifiques est toujours un objectif à long terme sur le domaine et l'un des principaux objectifs de ce mémoire. La co-extrusion de microcouche est une méthode pour produire de façon efficace et successive des polymères avec des structures de couches alternées, ayant les avantages de haute efficacité et faible coût. Par conséquent, sur les exigences structurelles de PM de l’application spécifique, ce mémoire a conçu le PM avec une structure spécifique et une co-extrusion de microcouche de manière créative combinée avec la méthode traditionnelle de préparation de PM (méthode de gabarit, méthode de séparation de phase), en combinant les avantages des deux méthodes, les PM avec une structure de pore idéale peuvent être préparés en grande quantité et l’on peut également explorer son application dans les séparateurs de batteries au lithium-ion et l'adsorption d'hydrocarbures aromatiques polycycliques.Le plus important, dans la deuxième partie de cet essai, se trouve que la simulation micro-numérique est utilisée pour étudier le transport et le dépôt de particules dans des milieux poreux pour explorer le mécanisme des matériaux poreux dans les domaines de l'adsorption et du séparateur de batterie. Le code de 3D-PTPO (un modèle tridimensionnel de suivi des particules combinant Python® et OpenFOAM®) est utilisé pour étudier le transport et le dépôt de particules colloïdales dans des milieux poreux, l’on adopte trois modèles (colonne, venturi et tube conique) pour représenter différentes formes de matériaux poreux. Les particules sont considérées comme des points matériaux pendant le transport, le volume des particules sera reconstitué et déposé comme partie de la surface du matériau poreux pendant le dépôt, la caractéristique principale de ce code est de considérer l'influence du volume des particules déposées sur la structure des pores, les lignes d'écoulement et le processus du dépôt des autres particules. Les simulations numériques sont d'abord conduites dans des capillaires simples, le travail de chercheurs de Lopez et d’autres est réexaminé en établissant un modèle géométrique tridimensionnel plus réaliste et il explore les mécanismes cachés derrière les règles de transmission et de dépôt. Par la suite, des simulations numériques sont effectuées dans des capillaires convergents-divergents pour étudier la structure des pores et l'effet de nombre Peclet sur le dépôt de particules. Enfin, l’on étudie l’effet double de l'hétérogénéité de surface et de l'hydrodynamique sur le comportement de dépôt de particules. / Due to the combination of the advantages of porous media and polymer materials, polymeric porous media possess the properties of controllable porous structure, easily modifiable surface properties, good chemical stability, etc., which make them applicable in a wide range of industrial fields, including adsorption, battery separator, catalyst carrier, filter, energy storage, etc. Although there exist various preparation methods, such as template technique, emulsion method, phase separation method, foaming process, electrospinning, top-down lithographic techniques, breath figure method, etc., the large-scale preparation of polymeric porous media with controllable pore structures and specified functions is still a long-term goal in this field, which is one of the core objectives of this thesis. Therefore, in the first part of the thesis, polymeric porous media are firstly designed based on the specific application requirements. Then the designed polymeric porous media are prepared by the combination of multilayer coextrusion and traditional preparation methods (template technique, phase separation method). This combined preparation method has integrated the advantages of the multilayer coextrusion (continuous process, economic pathway for large-scale fabrication, flexibility of the polymer species, and tunable layer structures) and the template/phase separation method (simple preparation process and tunable pore structure). Afterwards, the applications of the polymeric porous media in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons adsorption and lithium-ion battery separator have been investigated.More importantly, in the second part of the thesis, numerical simulations of particle transport and deposition in porous media are carried out to explore the mechanisms that form the theoretical basis for the above applications (adsorption, separation, etc.). Transport and deposition of colloidal particles in porous media are of vital important in other applications such as aquifer remediation, fouling of surfaces, and therapeutic drug delivery. Therefore, it is quite worthy to have a thorough understanding of these processes as well as the dominant mechanisms involved. In this part, the microscale simulations of colloidal particle transport and deposition in porous media are achieved by a novel colloidal particle tracking model, called 3D-PTPO (Three-Dimensional Particle Tracking model by Python® and OpenFOAM®) code. The particles are considered as a mass point during transport in the flow and their volume is reconstructed when they are deposited. The main feature of the code is to take into account the modification of the pore structure and thus the flow streamlines due to deposit. Numerical simulations were firstly carried out in a capillary tube considered as an element of an idealized porous medium composed of capillaries of circular cross sections to revisit the work of Lopez and co-authors by considering a more realistic 3D geometry and also to get the most relevant quantities by capturing the physics underlying the process. Then microscale simulation is approached by representing the elementary pore structure as a capillary tube with converging/diverging geometries (tapered pipe and venturi tube) to explore the influence of the pore geometry and the particle Péclet number (Pe) on particle deposition. Finally, the coupled effects of surface chemical heterogeneity and hydrodynamics on particle deposition in porous media were investigated in a three-dimensional capillary with periodically repeating chemically heterogeneous surfaces.