A major criticism of the environmental behavior literature is the nearly exclusive focus on the role of attitudes and individual-level characteristics. Despite this concentration on individual-level causes, variation in environmental behavior remains. As individual behavior becomes an increasingly significant source of pollution, a better understanding of the influences individual behavior is critical to addressing environmental degradation. This research re-directs the focus on individual-level influences on environmental behaviors by building models examining the varying dimensions of environmental behaviors as influenced by community characteristics. This is accomplished by testing a series of hypotheses under the auspices of two theoretical frameworks: the neoclassical economic theory and a social contextual model of environmental actions. Using individual-level data from the 1993 and 2000 General Social Survey and MSA data from the U.S. Census and the Environmental Protection Agency, I estimate two-level hierarchical models for three environmentally sensitive behaviors (environmentally sensitive food consumption, environmentally sensitive automobile use, and environmental activism). Multi-level analyses yield models revealing significant associations between MSA measures and individual environmental behaviors. Objective environmental conditions, region of MSA and MSA education level are significantly associated with environmentally sensitive food consumption behaviors, environmentally sensitive automobile use, and environmental activism behaviors, though their influence assumes diverse forms. Among the community measures, MSA education level is the primary social process that produces change in all environmental behaviors. In each of the models, MSA education level exhibits effects on all three behavioral measures and significant cross-level effects on automobile use behaviors. Living in a well educated MSA, particularly in the West or Northeast suggests higher environmental participation. Region of MSA is also a characteristic that must be considered when evaluating environmental behaviors, particularly for those living in the West and Northeast. Theoretical conclusions suggest that individual environmental behavior decision making is not simply a market exchange, but social forces are at work in the individual decision-making process.

The incidence of adverse birth outcomes, such as low birth weight and preterm births, has steadily risen in recent years in Canada. Despite the fact that numerous individual and neighbourhood risk factors for low birth weight and preterm births have been identified and various person-oriented intervention strategies have been implemented, uncertainties still exist concerning the role that place and space play in determining adverse birth outcomes. In order to succeed in producing community-oriented health policy and planning guidelines to reduce both the occurrence and inequalities of adverse birth outcomes, the research presented in this thesis provides an approach to examining the pathways of various socio-economic, environmental, and psycho-social risks to LBW and preterm births. Using a modified multilevel binary-outcome mediational analysis method, case studies are conducted within three public health units in Ontario, namely the Wellington-Dufferin-Guelph Health Unit, the Windsor-Essex County Health Unit, and the Halton Region Health Unit. Different pathways are investigated given the available data and the theoretical assumptions of three health inequality pathway models, namely the behavioural model, the psycho-social model, and the materialist model, and the geographical and planning perspectives of health inequalities. A local spatial analysis process is also used to identify spatial clusters of incidence and to assess possible associated reasons in order to support public health polices and planning in community-oriented health interventions. Using Bayesian spatial hierarchical analysis and spatial clustering analysis, local clustering of high risks of adverse birth outcomes and spatial variations of associated individual risks within the study areas are identified. The analysis is framed around five hypotheses that examine personal vs. spatial, compositional vs. contextual, psycho-social vs. material, personal vs. cultural, and global vs. local effects on the determinants of adverse birth outcomes. The results of testing these hypotheses provide evidence to assist with multi-component multi-level community-oriented interventions. Possible improvements of current prenatal care policies and programs to reduce the spatial and social inequalities of adverse birth outcomes are suggested. Potential improvements, including early stage prenatal health education, local healthy food provision, and cross-sector interventions such as the combination of social mixing strategies with bottom-up community-based health promotion programs, are also suggested.

Rotorcraft optimization is a challenging problem due to its conflicting requirements among many disciplines and highly coupled design variables affecting the overall design. Also, the design process for a composite rotor blade is often ambiguous because of its design space. Furthermore, analytical tools do not produce acceptable results compared with flight test when it comes to aerodynamics and aeroelasticity unless realistic models are used, which leads to excessive computer time per iteration. To comply these requirements, computationally efficient yet realistic tools for rotorcraft analysis, such as VABS and DYMORE were used as analysis tools. These tools decompose a three-dimensional problem into a two-dimensional cross-sectional and a one-dimensional beam analysis. Also, to eliminate the human interaction between iterations, a previously VABS-ANSYS macro was modified and automated. The automated tool shortened the computer time needed to generate the VABS input file for each analysis from hours to seconds. MATLAB was used as the wrapper tool to integrate VABS, DYMORE and the VABS-ANSYS macro into the methodology. This methodology uses Genetic Algorithm and gradient-based methods as optimization schemes. The baseline model is the rotor system of generic Georgia Tech Helicopter (GTH), which is a three-bladed, soft-in-plane, bearingless rotor system. The resulting methodology is a two-level optimization, global and local. Previous studies showed that when stiffnesses are used as design variables in optimization, these values act as if they are independent and produce design requirements that cannot be achieved by local-level optimization. To force design variables at the global level to stay within the feasible design space of the local level, a surrogate model was adapted into the methodology. For the surrogate model, different ``design of experiments" (DOE) methods were tested to find the most computationally efficient DOE method. The response surface method (RSM) and Kriging were tested for the optimization problem. The results show that using the surrogate model speeds up the optimization process and the Kriging model shows superior performance over RSM models. As a result, the global-level optimizer produces requirements that the local optimizer can achieve.

Under path dependent consideration, we discuss vulnerable option pricing problem. Two pricing models are proposed: Model(1) use stepwise regression and Monte Carlo simulation, and Model(2) is based on multi-level regression method. Since the option price was approximated by quadratic surface at each time point in Model(1), large mean square errors are induced. Therefore, we further propose a stepwise subset regression method to improve Model(1) approach. At present, this proposed method can compute the option price accurately for no credit risk options. For Model(2), we utilize a multi-level regression method to price vulnerable options, and simulation results show that the method can also obtain accurate option prices.

Under the business environment in the 21th century with global competition and outsourcing cooperation, the model of starting an enterprise has been performed diversely. This study explores the elements of starting an enterprise that uses different methods of communication and marketing. In the field of direct selling, every distributor hopes to own a massive down-line organization with direct management in order to earn a huge amount of reward. However, to build a successful down-line organization demands professional knowledge and practical management skills. This research studies the operation of the successfully performed¡u6-4-2 system¡vby exploratory research. ¡u6-4-2 system¡voffers a set of models which is similar to the chain store operations of 100% copying and leads the partners to the same direction by offering operating modules and verifying methods that are simple, correct and success-assuring . This system sequentially improves the behavior and thinking method of a new member, cultivates his/her characteristics and abilities to become a leader. It has established an international multi-level marketing organization simply by two requirements to the distributors¡¦ daily life: following five major principles; doing seven things a day.

We present a multi-grid method for a class of structured generalized Lyapunov matrix equations. Such equations need to be solved in each step of the Newton method for algebraic Riccati equations, which arise from linear-quadratic optimal control problems governed by partial differential equations. We prove the rate of convergence of the two-grid method to be bounded independent of the dimension of the problem under certain assumptions. The multi-grid method is based on matrix-matrix multiplications and thus it offers a great potential for a parallelization. The efficiency of the method is demonstrated by numerical experiments.

In this paper, finite element discretizations of the degenerated operator -ω²(y) u_xx-ω²(x)u_yy=g in the unit square are investigated, where the weight function satisfies ω(ξ)=ξ^α with α ≥ 0. We propose two multi-level methods in order to solve the resulting system of linear algebraic equations. The first method is a multi-grid algorithm with line-smoother. A proof of the smoothing property is given. The second method is a BPX-like preconditioner which we call MTS-BPX preconditioner. We show that the upper eigenvalue bound of the MTS-BPX preconditioned system matrix grows proportionally to the level number.

As much as urban areas are centres of greenhouse gas emissions, cities hold a unique position in tackling climate change as they have legal authority over key sectors such as buildings, transportation, and urban planning. Recognising the benefit of coordinating activities on the local level, transnational municipal networks (TMNs) unite local governments across borders, providing particular services to its members. In Europe, there are several TMNs focusing on issues related to climate protection. This study examines four of these networks (ICLEI, Climate Alliance, Energy Cities, EUROCITIES) and the functions they hold available. Interviews were conducted with representatives from the networks and a sample of German cities in order to depict both their perspectives. In terms of functions provided by the TMNs as a whole, lobbying for needs and concerns of the municipalities was considered as one of the networks’ main task. Further, two forms of lobbying were identified that varied depending on the respective network: lobbying, including mayoral support; and lobbying on a technical level. In addition, interviewees valued the exchange of information and experiences that these networks enable and foster. Lastly, their role in project management was stated as an important reason for network membership. A TMN-specific analysis revealed that ICLEI’s main strength was seen in lobbying on international level for its members’ concerns by also involving its member cities’ mayors. Municipalities seemed to turn to Energy Cities and EUROCITIES with regard to lobbying concentrated at EU decision-making, project cooperation, and the exchange of information. Climate Alliance’s unique selling point – since none of the other networks was associated with this function – appeared to be in organising awareness raising events and campaigns in cooperation with its members.

Paviane (Papio spp.) gelten als wichtiges Modell für die Evolution menschlicher Sozialsysteme. Im Pleistozän hat sich die Gattung Papio ausgehend vom südlichen Afrika über große Teile Afrikas südlich der Sahara sowie Teile der Arabischen Halbinsel ausgebreitet, wobei Guineapaviane (P. papio) die nordwestlichsten und Mantelpaviane (P. hamadryas) die nordöstlichsten Gebiete besiedeln. Im Vergleich zu anderen Pavianarten, deren Ökologie und Sozialsystem seit vielen Jahrzehnten umfangreich untersucht werden, waren zu Guineapavianen bisher nur wenige und zudem widersprüchliche Kenntnisse vorhanden. Dies ist vor allem darauf zurückzuführen, dass von ihnen quantitative Freilanddaten fehlten. Bisher wurden für Paviane zwei Typen von Sozialsystemen beschrieben: Die sogenannten Savannenpaviane (P. anubis, P. cynocephalus und P. ursinus) im südlichen und östlichen Afrika leben in Gruppen mit mehreren Männchen und mehreren Weibchen, wobei Netzwerke nahverwandter Weibchen den sozialen Kern bilden. Mantelpaviane in Nordost-Afrika und Arabien leben dagegen in einer mehrschichtigen Gesellschaft, in denen Ein-Mann-Gruppen die kleinste soziale Einheit darstellen. Ergebnisse früherer Studien an Guineapavianen deuteten darauf hin, dass ihre Gesellschaft auch mehrschichtig ist, ähnlich der von Mantelpavianen. Allerdings wurden Guineapavianmännchen als untereinander außergewöhnlich tolerant beschrieben, was zu der Vermutung führte, dass ihr Sozialsystem innerhalb der Gattung Papio einzigartig ist. Zudem scheinen Männchen verschiedener Pavianarten bezüglich der Konsistenz ihrer Hierarchien, der Häufigkeit von Koalitionsbildung und Infantizidrisiko zu variieren. Diese Beobachtung führte zu der Vermutung, dass im Zusammenhang mit der Ausbreitung der Gattung über den afrikanischen Kontinent entlang eines Süd-Nord-Gradienten eine Evolution hin zu mehr Toleranz und Koalitionensbildung zwischen Männchen stattgefunden hat. Da Guineapaviane an der nordwestlichsten Grenze des Verbreitungsgebietes der Gattung leben, ist hier eine Charakterisierung der Beziehungen zwischen Männchen wichtig, um diese Annahme zu überprüfen. In meiner Dissertation habe ich verschiedene Aspekte des Sozialsystems der Guineapaviane untersucht. Dabei habe ich mich im Besonderen auf Männchen fokussiert, um zu prüfen, ob diese eine ähnlich einflussreiche Rolle in ihrer Gesellschaft einnehmen, wie es bei Mantelpavianmännchen beobachtet wird. Der Fokus auf Männchen erlaubte außerdem den angenommenen Süd-Nord-Gradienten bezüglich der Qualität der Beziehungen zwischen Männchen zu testen. Demnach sollten Guineapavianmännchen als Angehörige einer nördlichen Art im Vergleich zu südlicheren Arten toleranter und kooperativer untereinander sein. Da allgemein angenommen wird, dass Verwandtschaft einen bedeutenden Einfluss auf soziale Interaktionsmuster haben kann (Verwandtenselektion) und auch in sozialen Interaktionen zwischen Mantelpavianmännchen eine wichtige Rolle spielt, habe ich darüber hinaus geprüft, ob genetische Verwandtschaft die räumlichen und sozialen Interaktionsmuster von Guineapavianmännchen erklären kann. Meine Studie ist die erste über Guineapaviane, die überwiegend auf quantitativen Daten zum Sozialverhalten individuell bekannter Tiere in ihrem natürlichen Lebensraum basiert. Zu Beginn des Projektes haben wir nicht habituierte Guineapaviane untersucht, die zu einer Population (Community) von Tieren gehören, deren Streifgebiet sich in der Nähe unserer Feldstation im Niokolo Koba Nationalpark im Senegal befindet. Dazu notierten wir die Größe und Zusammensetzung von Untergruppen an einer Wasserstelle. Es zeigte sich, dass diese Untergruppen je nach Tages- und Jahreszeit sehr variabel in ihrer Größe sowie der Zusammensetzung verschiedener Geschlechts- und Altersklassen waren. Nachdem wir zwei Untergruppen habituiert hatten und die Tiere individuell unterscheiden konnten, wurden anhand räumlicher Daten von mit GPS-Sendern ausgestatteten Tieren sowie mit Hilfe von Verhaltensbeobachtungen soziale Interaktionen und räumliche Assoziationen zwischen adulten Guineapavianmännchen untersucht. Um den Einfluss von Verwandtschaft auf das Sozialsystem zu prüfen, haben wir zudem mehrere adulte Männchen aus der untersuchten Community genotypisiert und genetische Verwandtschaft mit räumlichen Gruppierungs- bzw. sozialen Interaktionsmustern in Bezug gesetzt. Die Ergebnisse meiner Arbeit deuten darauf hin, dass die soziale Organisation der Guineapaviane mindestens drei Ebenen umfasst: Sogenannte Parties bestehen aus drei oder vier adulten Männchen (plus mehrere Weibchen und deren Jungtiere). Innerhalb dieser Ebene fand der Großteil der Interaktionen statt und es wurden enge soziale Bindungen sowie Koalitionen zwischen Männchen beobachtet. Parties scheinen daher die zentrale Einheit der Guineapaviangesellschaft zu bilden. Zwei oder drei Parties formen eine Gang, innerhalb derer die Männchen enger miteinander verwandt waren als Männchen verschiedener Gangs. Allgemein waren soziale Interaktionen auf die Ebene der Gang beschränkt. Die Community stellt die dritte Ebene dar und umfasst alle Individuen, die im gleichen Streifgebiet leben. Im Unterschied zum Mantelpaviansystem scheinen daher Ein-Mann-Gruppen bei Guineapavianen keine Organisationseinheit darzustellen, wobei wir über die Verteilung von Vaterschaften noch keine Aussagen machen können. Die Analyse sozialer Interaktionsmuster in Bezug auf Verwandtschaft ergab, dass Guineapavianmännchen unabhängig von Verwandtschaft starke kooperative Bindungen miteinander eingehen und sehr tolerant sind, sowohl innerhalb als auch zwischen Parties. Männchen scheinen also aktiv zum Zusammenhalt der Gangs beizutragen und spielen daher eine wichtige Rolle in der Erhaltung der mehrschichtigen Gesellschaft in der sie leben. Außerdem interagieren Männchen weitaus häufiger freundlich miteinander als bei anderen Pavianarten. Im Einklang damit zeigt ein Vergleich von Körpermaßen innerhalb der Gattung, dass bei Guineapavianmännchen Merkmale reduziert sind, welche mit intrasexueller Konkurrenz in Verbindung gebracht werden. Die sozialen Beziehungen zwischen Guineapavianmännchen scheinen demnach entscheidend von denen der Männchen anderer Pavianarten abzuweichen. Zusammengefasst belegt meine Studie, dass die Vielfalt von Sozialsystemen bei Pavianen, insbesondere die Variation in der Qualität der Beziehungen unter Männchen, größer ist als bisher angenommen. Die Gattung umfasst demzufolge vermutlich mehr als zwei, und mindestens drei, verschiedene Typen sozialer Systeme. Während die mehrschichtige Organisation der Guineapaviane oberflächlich dem Mantelpaviansystem ähnelt, unterscheiden sich die sozialen Beziehungen zwischen Guineapavianmännchen bezüglich der Intensität und Häufigkeit freundlicher Interaktionen auffallend von denen anderer Mitglieder der Gattung Papio. Diese Beobachtungen passen zu einem angenommenen Süd-Nord-Gradienten hinsichtlich einer erhöhten Häufigkeit von Koalitionsbildungen und einer gesteigerten Toleranz zwischen Männchen und betonen somit einmal mehr, dass es wichtig ist, die Stammesgeschichte und historischen Umweltbedingungen der untersuchten Arten neben derzeitigen Umweltbedingungen in die Untersuchung sozialer Evolution einzubeziehen.

The organizations of national and provincial parties in Canada are understood to be separated from one another. However, it is not known whether this separation extends to the constituency-level organizations of those parties. In order to provide a better understanding of how national and provincial parties are linked at the local level (if at all), this thesis describes and accounts for the local organizations of the national Liberal Party and the provincial Liberal parties in sixteen national constituencies selected from the provinces of British Columbia, Ontario, and New Brunswick. Information from interviews with local party activists and participant observation in the ridings is used to develop a continuum of constituency-level party organizations. Descriptions of the activist bases, constituency associations, and local campaigns in each riding allow for each local organization to be placed along this continuum between integrated local organizations, which share important linkages between the national and provincial levels, and differentiated local organizations, where no such linkages exist. The placement of local organizations along this continuum is accounted for by (1) similarities or differences between the national and provincial party systems in the three provinces studied; (2) the actions of incumbent members of the national Parliament and provincial legislatures; and (3) characteristics of the constituencies. The patterns identified lead to a classification of four types of local organizations – One Political World, Interconnected Political Worlds, Distinctive Political Worlds, and Two Political Worlds – that illuminate the different forms of linkages between national and provincial parties that exist at the constituency level. This examination of the local organizations of the Liberal Party calls into question the academic consensus on the separation of national and provincial parties in Canada. Instead, the Liberal Party is characterized as an unevenly integrated party, where the parliamentary and extra-parliamentary parties are separated from provincial counterparts, but where the national and provincial parties on the ground are oftentimes integrated.