A indústria de petróleo e gás tem trabalhado para o desenvolvimento de métodos que permitam o monitoramento e controle da produção de fluidos nos poços. Para isso são desenvolvidos equipamentos específicos para medição de vazões. Este trabalho apresenta um sistema baseado em medidores de vazão por obstrução ou pressão diferencial (placas de orifício, bocais e Venturis) para determinação em linha de vazões de produção (óleo, gás e água) em poços de petróleo. A partir das equações de conservação da massa e do momento para escoamento unidimensional e considerando escoamento isotérmico com fases incompressíveis, sem mudança de fase, com fases líquidas homogeneizadas e com escorregamento constante entre as fases líquida e gasosa, é deduzida uma relação geral entre vazão mássica total e queda de pressão. Utilizando a correlação de Chisholm para o escorregamento, é realizada uma comparação entre os resultados obtidos com o modelo homogêneo e o modelo de escorregamento constante. Por meio de uma caracterização dos fluidos em produção em estado permanente e utilizando o modelo de black oil para o sistema óleo-gás, são determinadas as vazões de produção na condição de referência. São realizadas validações dos resultados do modelo com dados experimentais obtidos numa bancada experimental em Aracaju (Sergipe) e em poços de Urucu (Amazonas). A comparação com os resultados experimentais mostra que as predições feitas com o modelo de escorregamento podem ser consideradas satisfatórias, levando-se em conta que o modelo foi desenvolvido de maneira independente, sem parâmetros de ajuste dos dados experimentais. / The oil and gas industry has been working to develop methods to monitor and control the fluid production in the wells. For this purpose, specific equipments are developed for measuring stream flows. This work presents a system based on differential pressure (or obstruction) flow meters (orifice plates, Venturis and nozzles) for online determination of production flows (oil, gas and water) in oil wells. Starting from the mass and momentum conservation equations for one-dimensional, isothermal flow and considering incompressible phases without phase change, homogenized liquid phases and constant slip between gas and liquid phases, a general relationship between total mass flow and pressure drop is derived. Using Chisholmts correlation for the slip, a comparison is made between the results obtained with the homogeneous model and the constant slip model. Through a characterization of the production fluids in steady state and using the black oil model for the oil-gas system, the production flows are determined at the reference condition. A validation is made between results obtained with the model and experimental data obtained in a rig at Aracaju (Sergipe) and in wells at Urucu (Amazonas). The comparison with experimental results shows that the predictions made with the slip model may be considered satisfactory, taking into account that the model was developed independently, without parameters adjusted from the experimental data.

O presente trabalho tem como objetivo fundamental a construção de um sistema de identificação capaz de diagnosticar em tempo real as diferentes configurações de escoamentos bifásicos horizontais. É importante ressaltar que o desenvolvimento deste know-how é capital para a operação eficaz de instalações de manipulação e ou transporte de fluidos multifásicos, e representa, hoje, um dos grandes desafios nas indústrias do petróleo e termonuclear. O princípio de funcionamento do sistema proposto baseia-se nos sinais captados por um sensor de pressão flutuante de resposta rápida, e no seu pósprocessamento com auxílio da transformada de Gabor e de uma rede neural convenientemente treinada. A implementação é tal que a operação de diagnóstico pode ser feita on-line, desde a aquisição dos sinais até o pósprocessamento. Resultados experimentais foram obtidos no circuito experimental do NETeF - Núcleo de Engenharia Térmica e Fluidos da USP - Universidade de São Paulo, para uma secção de testes horizo ntal com 12 m de comprimento e diâmetro interno de 30 mm. Em específico foram ensaiados os seguintes padrões de escoamento ar-água: estratificado liso, ondulado, intermitente, anular e a bolhas. Os resultados mostram que, dependendo dos limites de detecção pré-estabelecidos, todos o principais padrões de escoamento bifásico horizontal são identificados corretamente. / The fundamental objective of this work is the construction of an identification system capable of diagnosing in real time different configurations of horizontal two-phase flow patterns. It is important to emphasize that the development of this know-how is capital to the efficient operation of facilities for manipulation and transportation of multiphase fluids, and represents, today, one of the most important challenges in the oil and thermonuclear industries. The working principle of the proposed system is based on the signals acquired by a rapid response fluctuating pressure sensor, and on its post processing through Gabor Transform and on a conveniently trained artificial neural network. The implementation is accomplished in way that the diagnosis operation is performed on-line, from signal acquisition to post-processing. Experimental results were obtained on the experimental circuit at NETeF - Núcleo de Engenharia Térmica e Fluidos of USP - Universidade de São Paulo, at São Carlos, using a horizontal test section, with 12 m length and 30 mm internal diameter. Experiments were done with the following air-water flow patterns: stratified smooth, wavy, intermittent, annular, and bubbly. Results show that, depending on the preset detection limits, all the main horizontal two phase flow patterns were correctly identified.

A indústria de petróleo e gás tem trabalhado para o desenvolvimento de métodos que permitam o monitoramento e controle da produção de fluidos nos poços. Para isso são desenvolvidos equipamentos específicos para medição de vazões. Este trabalho apresenta um sistema baseado em medidores de vazão por obstrução ou pressão diferencial (placas de orifício, bocais e Venturis) para determinação em linha de vazões de produção (óleo, gás e água) em poços de petróleo. A partir das equações de conservação da massa e do momento para escoamento unidimensional e considerando escoamento isotérmico com fases incompressíveis, sem mudança de fase, com fases líquidas homogeneizadas e com escorregamento constante entre as fases líquida e gasosa, é deduzida uma relação geral entre vazão mássica total e queda de pressão. Utilizando a correlação de Chisholm para o escorregamento, é realizada uma comparação entre os resultados obtidos com o modelo homogêneo e o modelo de escorregamento constante. Por meio de uma caracterização dos fluidos em produção em estado permanente e utilizando o modelo de black oil para o sistema óleo-gás, são determinadas as vazões de produção na condição de referência. São realizadas validações dos resultados do modelo com dados experimentais obtidos numa bancada experimental em Aracaju (Sergipe) e em poços de Urucu (Amazonas). A comparação com os resultados experimentais mostra que as predições feitas com o modelo de escorregamento podem ser consideradas satisfatórias, levando-se em conta que o modelo foi desenvolvido de maneira independente, sem parâmetros de ajuste dos dados experimentais. / The oil and gas industry has been working to develop methods to monitor and control the fluid production in the wells. For this purpose, specific equipments are developed for measuring stream flows. This work presents a system based on differential pressure (or obstruction) flow meters (orifice plates, Venturis and nozzles) for online determination of production flows (oil, gas and water) in oil wells. Starting from the mass and momentum conservation equations for one-dimensional, isothermal flow and considering incompressible phases without phase change, homogenized liquid phases and constant slip between gas and liquid phases, a general relationship between total mass flow and pressure drop is derived. Using Chisholmts correlation for the slip, a comparison is made between the results obtained with the homogeneous model and the constant slip model. Through a characterization of the production fluids in steady state and using the black oil model for the oil-gas system, the production flows are determined at the reference condition. A validation is made between results obtained with the model and experimental data obtained in a rig at Aracaju (Sergipe) and in wells at Urucu (Amazonas). The comparison with experimental results shows that the predictions made with the slip model may be considered satisfactory, taking into account that the model was developed independently, without parameters adjusted from the experimental data.

Escoamentos multifásicos estão presentes em diversas aplicações industriais, principalmente na indústria do petróleo. Um dos casos de aplicação, objeto de estudo desse trabalho, é a determinação da produção de poços de petróleo através de válvulas choke. É apresentada uma revisão dos efeitos físicos e do equacionamento adotado pelos principais modelos multifásicos existentes para tais válvulas. Um estudo de sensibilidade de tais efeitos físicos é realizado, analisando as possíveis alternativas para a diferença de velocidade entre as fases, o mecanismo adotado para a troca de calor entre as fases, a influência da energia cinética a montante da válvula, a influência da área efetiva da garganta e a metodologia de cálculo da recuperação de pressão a jusante da válvula. Conclui-se que dos diversos fatores que influenciam no cálculo da vazão mássica e da condição crítica, a área efetiva da garganta é um parâmetro importante e que é necessário uma maior investigação de como determinar tal parâmetro. / Multiphase flow are present in many industrial applications, mainly at the petroleum industry. One of these application cases, aim of this work study, is to determine a petroleum well production by the choke valves. It is presented a revision of the physical effects and for the adopted equation by the main existing multiphase models for such valves. A sensibility study of such physical effects is performed, analyzing the possible alternatives for the phases velocities difference, the adopted mechanism for the heat transfer between the phases, the upstream kinetic energy influence, the throat effective area influencie and the calculation methodology adopted for the valve downstream pressure recover. It is concluded that from many factors that influence in the mass flow and critical condition calculation, the throat effective area is a important parameter and it is necessary a deeper investigation in how to determine such parameter.

<p>In this thesis a set of boundary conditions for multiphase flow is suggested.</p><p>Characteristic-based boundary conditions are reviewed for single-phase flow. The problem of open-boundary conditions is investigated, and to avoid drifting values, the use of control functions is proposed.</p><p>The use of control functions is also verified with a new test which assesses the quality of the boundary conditions. Particularly, P- and PI-control functions are examined. PI-controllers have the ability to specify a given variable exactly at the outlet as well as at the inlet, without causing spurious reflections which are amplified.</p><p>Averaged multiphase flow equations are reviewed, and a simplified model is established. This model is used for the boundary analysis and the computations. Due to the averaging procedure, signal speeds are reduced to the order of the flow speed. This leads to numerical challenges. For a horizontal channel flow, a splitting of the interface pressure model is suggested. This bypasses the numerical problems associated with separation by gravity, and a physical realistic model is used. In this case, the inviscid model is shown to possess complex eigenvalues, and still the characteristic boundary conditions give reasonable results.</p><p>The governing equations are solved with a Runge-Kutta scheme for the time integration. For the spatial discretisation, a finite-volume and a finite-difference method are used. Both implementations give equivalent results. In single-phase flow, the results improve significantly when a numerical filter is applied. For two-dimensional two-phase flow, the computations are unstable without a numerical filter.</p>

<p>This Master Thesis presents TMVOC simulations of a NAPL-spill (non-aqueous phase liquid) and following pumping remediation. TMVOC is a simulation program for three-phase non-isothermal multicomponent flow in saturated-unsaturated heterogeneous media. The models presented are based on an actual remediation project. The aim of the thesis was to study if the historical development of the NAPL-spill could be simulated and how long time the pumping remediation would take. A 3D-model and a radially symmetric cylindrical model were created.</p><p>A large effort of the work done was in taking the complex TMVOC model in use and modifying it for the problem at hand. Therefore, the numerical results of the simulations should be considered as preliminary and as forming basis for future studies.</p><p>The results from the spill simulation and historical pumping simulation indicated that the spill volume could be less than the estimated 1400 m³, perhaps around 700 m³, assuming a leakage time of 30 years.</p><p>The historical pumping simulation of a 700 m³ diesel spill showed good agreement with measured values for some wells, but overestimated the recovery in other wells. The overestimation could be due to the fact that the 3D-model did not take seasonal changes in the groundwater level into consideration. Also, the model did not account for any heterogeneity or compartmentalization in soil material properties that could explain the differences between the wells. </p><p>Assuming the same spill of 700 m³, future pumping was simulated. The results from these simulations indicated the remediation time to be long due to fast decreasing mobility of the NAPL phase. The NAPL flow rate to the wells was halved in a couple of years. Much of the NAPL was distributed over a large area at near residual saturation with the highest NAPL saturation found at the opposite side of the pumping wells in the model.</p><p> </p><p>Future simulation studies should address the effect of discretization as well as the effect of uncertainties in material properties e.g. conductivity, residual NAPL saturation and soil heterogeneity.</p>

Contamination of ground water by non-aqueous phase liquids (NAPLs) has received increasing attention. The most common approach to numerical modeling of NAPL movement through the unsaturated zone is the use of the finite difference or finite element methods to solve a set of partial differential equations derived from Darcy's law and the continuity equations (Abriola and Pinder, 1985; Kaluarachchi and Parker, 1989). These methods work well in many settings, but have given little insights as to why certain non-ideal flow phenomena will occur. The network modeling method, which considers flow at the pore-scale, was used in this study to better understand macroscopic flow phenomena in porous media. Pore-scale network models approximate porous medium as a connected network of pores and channels. Two and three-dimensional pore-scale network models were constructed in this study. A uniform statistical distribution was assumed to represent the random arrangement of pore and tube sizes. Both hysteristic scanning curves and intermediate fluid distribution are studied. The simulation results suggested that network models may be used to predict the characteristic curves of three-phase systems. The results also suggested that three-dimensional models are necessary to study the three-phase problems. Two-dimensional models do not provide realistic results as evidenced by their inability to provide scale-invariant representation of flow processes. The network sizes used in this study ranged from 10 x 5 (50) to 156 x 78 (12168) pores for two-dimensional and from 10 x 5 x 5 (250) to 100 x 50 x 5 (25000) pores for three-dimensional domains. The domain size of 100 x 50 x 5 pores was large enough to provide descriptions independent of the domain scale. The one important limitation of network models is the considerable computational requirements. The use of very high speed computers is essential. Except for this limitation, the network model provides an invaluable technique to study fluid transport mechanisms in the vadose zone. / Graduation date: 1996

The response of slotted plate, Venturi meter and standard orifice to the presence of two phase, three phase and low differential flows was investigated. Two mixtures (air-water and air-oil) were used in the two-phase analysis while a mixture of air, water and oil was employed in the three-phase case. Due to the high gas void fraction (α>0.9), the mixture was considered wet gas. A slotted plate was utilized in the low differential pressure analysis and the discharge coefficient behavior was analyzed. Assuming homogeneous flow, an equation with two unknowns was obtained for the multi-phase flow analysis. An empirical relation and the differential response of the meters were used to estimate the variables involved in the equation. Good performance in the gas mass flow rate estimation was exhibited by the slotted and standard plates for the air-water flow, while poor results were obtained for the air-oil and air-water oil flows. The performance of all the flow meter tested in the analysis improved for differential pressures greater than 24.9 kPa (100 in_H2O). Due to the tendency to a zero value for the liquid flow, the error of the estimation reached values of more than 500% at high qualities and low differential pressures. Air-oil and air-water-oil flows show that liquid viscosity influences the response of the differential pressure meters. The best results for high liquid viscosity were obtained in the Venturi meter using the recovery pressure for the gas flow estimation at differential pressures greater than 24.9 kPa (100 in_H2O). A constant coefficient Cd was used for the low differential pressure analysis and results did show that for differential pressure less than 1.24 kPa (5 inH2O) density changes are less than 1% making possible the incompressible flow assumption. The average of the computed coefficients is the value of Cd.

This thesis deals with the heat evolution duringsolidification and its relation to the formation of porosity.It intends to improve the current understanding of theformation of porosity in cast materials with special interestin nodular cast iron and the spray forming process. Twodifferent systems, a Fe-based alloy, Cast iron, and a Ni-basedalloy, Inconel 625, are examined. The effect on the heatevolution of the morphology and the processing parameters inspray forming are treated. An evaluation of the microstructural features, segregationbehavior and physical properties such as latent heat of fusionis performed byusing thermal analysis under cooling ratesranging from 0.1 to 104 K/s. In order to achieve this amodified differential thermal analysis (DTA) equipment, amirror furnace and levitation casting are used. Results arepresented in terms of the fraction of solidified, the coolingrate and the microstructure observed. The measured latent heatof fusion is not constant throughout the solidificationprocess. Variations in morphology and cooling rate affect therelease of the latent heat. A thermodynamic model is used to describe the experimentalobservations and to explain the formation of pores in nodularcast iron by taking into consideration the formation of latticedefects during the liquid/solid transformation. In this casethe formation of porosity is regarded as a consequence ofchanges in the volume fraction ratio graphite/ during thesolidification process. A numerical model of the spray forming process is developedby means of CFD modelling and compared with experimentalmeasurements performed in an industrial facility. Stagnationpressure measurements provided information about the gas flowvelocity and an analysis of the overspray powder providedinformation about the particle thermal history. Evaluation ofthe deposit was also performed. It is observed that the processconditions in spray forming promote non-equilibriumsolidification even though solidification at the deposit occursat a lower rate. In this case the porosity formed near theinterface substrate/deposit depends largely on the substratetemperature. The presence of certain reactive elements, such astitanium, affects the porosity levels in the rest of thedeposit. <b>Keywords:</b>Thermal Analysis, Nodular Cast Iron, Inconel625, CFD, Flow Assesment, Multiphase Flow, Spray Deposition,Microporosity, Superalloys

In this thesis a set of boundary conditions for multiphase flow is suggested. Characteristic-based boundary conditions are reviewed for single-phase flow. The problem of open-boundary conditions is investigated, and to avoid drifting values, the use of control functions is proposed. The use of control functions is also verified with a new test which assesses the quality of the boundary conditions. Particularly, P- and PI-control functions are examined. PI-controllers have the ability to specify a given variable exactly at the outlet as well as at the inlet, without causing spurious reflections which are amplified. Averaged multiphase flow equations are reviewed, and a simplified model is established. This model is used for the boundary analysis and the computations. Due to the averaging procedure, signal speeds are reduced to the order of the flow speed. This leads to numerical challenges. For a horizontal channel flow, a splitting of the interface pressure model is suggested. This bypasses the numerical problems associated with separation by gravity, and a physical realistic model is used. In this case, the inviscid model is shown to possess complex eigenvalues, and still the characteristic boundary conditions give reasonable results. The governing equations are solved with a Runge-Kutta scheme for the time integration. For the spatial discretisation, a finite-volume and a finite-difference method are used. Both implementations give equivalent results. In single-phase flow, the results improve significantly when a numerical filter is applied. For two-dimensional two-phase flow, the computations are unstable without a numerical filter.