The present work investigates, numerically, the process of melting and solidification in hollow vertical cylinders, filled with air and phase change material (PCM). The PCM used is sodium nitrate, which expands upon melting. Therefore, a void must be present within the cylinder, which is filled with air. The influence of cylinder shape on melting time is determined. The numerical model takes both conductive and convective heat transfer into account during the melting process. The Volume-of-Fluid (VOF) model is used to track the interface between the PCM and air as the PCM melts. Three dimensionless numbers represent the characteristics of the problem, which are the Grashof, Stefan, and Prandtl numbers. The Stefan and Prandtl numbers are held constant, while the Grashof number varies. Inner Aspect Ratio (AR) is used to characterize the shape of the cylinder, which is defined as the ratio of the height to the diameter of the vertical cylinder. In this study, a range of AR values from 0.23 to 10 is investigated. Cylinders with small AR, corresponding to high Grashof numbers, lead to lower melting times compared with cylinders with high AR. The molten PCM velocity was also influenced greatly by this difference between solid PCM shape between high and low AR cases. Cylinders with small AR, corresponding to high Grashof numbers, lead to higher solidification times compared with cylinders with high AR. It was found that the velocity decreased during the solidification process, but the shape of the cylinder had an effect on the decrease. Natural convection velocity was found to decrease during the solidification process and, therefore, its effects diminish as solidification proceeds.

Sensible energy storage for solar domestic hot water (SDHW) systems is space consuming and heavy. Latent heat energy storage systems (LHESSs) offer a solution to this problem. However, the functionality of a LHESS during simultaneous charging/discharging, an operating mode encountered when used with a SDHW, had not been studied experimentally. A small scale vertical cylindrical LHESS, with dodecanoic acid as the phase change material (PCM), was studied during separate and simultaneous charging/discharging. Natural convection was found to have a strong influence during melting, but not during solidification. During simultaneous operation heat transfer was limited by the high thermal resistance of the solid PCM. However, when the PCM was melted, direct heat transfer occurred between the hot and cold heat transfer fluids, indicating the significance of the PCM phase on heat transfer in the system. The results of this research will lead to more optimally designed LHESS for use with SDHW. ?

The steady-state natural convection heat transfer from vertical rectangular fins extending perpendicularly from vertical rectangular base was investigated experimentally. The effects of geometric parameters and base-to-ambient temperature difference on the heat transfer performance of fin arrays were observed and the optimum fin separation values were determined. Two similar experimental set-ups were employed during experiments in order to take measurements from 30 different fin configurations having fin lengths of 250 mm and 340 mm. Fin thickness was maintained fixed at 3 mm. Fin height and fin spacing were varied from 5 mm to 25 mm and 5.75 mm to 85.5 mm, respectively. 5 heat inputs ranging from 25 W to 125 W were supplied for all fin configurations, and hence, the base and the ambient temperatures were measured in order to evaluate the heat transfer rate from fin arrays. The results of experiments have shown that the convection heat transfer rate from fin arrays depends on all geometric parameters and base-to-ambient temperature difference. The effect of these parameters on optimum fin spacing was also examined, and it was realized that for a given base-to-ambient temperature difference, an optimum fin spacing value which maximizes the convective heat transfer rate from the fin array is available for every fin height. The results indicated that the optimum fin spacings are between 8.8 mm and 14.7 mm, for the fin arrays employed in this work. Using the experimental results of present study and experimental results in available literature [2,3,9,10,11,12,14], a correlation for optimum fin spacing at a given fin length and base-to-ambient temperature difference was obtained as a result of scale analysis.

Three dimensional laminar natural convection flow of and heat transfer in incompressible air between two inclined parallel plates are analyzed with the Boussinesq approximation by using spectral methods. The plates are assumed to be infinitely long in streamwise and spanwise directions. For these directions, periodic boundary conditions are used and for the normal direction constant wall temperature and no slip boundary conditions are used. Unsteady Navier-Stokes and energy equations are solved using a pseudospectral C code in order to obtain velocity and temperature profiles inside the channel. Fourier series are used to expand the variables in x and z directions, while Chebyshev polynomials are used to expand the variables in y direction. By using the temperature distribution between the plates, local and average Nusselt numbers (Nu) are calculated. Nu values are correlated with &amp / #966 / ,which is the inclination angle, and with Racos&amp / #966 / to compare the results with the literature. Additionally, non-dimensional velocity values and streamlines of the fluid are presented with proper plots.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-10-09T12:45:15Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 / Made available in DSpace on 2014-10-09T13:56:53Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 / Dissertacao (Mestrado) / IPEN/D / Instituto de Pesquisas Energeticas e Nucleares - IPEN/CNEN-SP

O presente trabalho apresenta um estudo numérico do escoamento laminar em cavidade quadrada aletada sob o efeito de convecção mista. O escoamento proposto é assumido bidimensional, laminar e permanente. Objetiva-se através do “Constructal Design” a obtenção de geometria ótima da aleta de forma a maximizar a transferência de calor entre o fluido que escoa no interior da cavidade e a aleta aquecida cuja base está localizada no centro da base da cavidade. Para isto é fixada a relação das dimensões externas da cavidade (H/L) = 1 e variada a relação entre altura e comprimento da aleta (H1/L1) para otimização da troca térmica. A área da aleta apresenta 5% da área total da cavidade e este valor é mantido fixo. O fluido que escoa no inteiror da cavidade possui as propriedades termofísicas do ar para Pr = 0,7. A variação das forças de empuxo no escoamento é realizada através do uso de diferentes números de Rayleigh no intervalo Ra= 10³ a 106. As diferentes magnitudes das forças inerciais serão aplicadas ao escoamento através da variação do número de Reynolds variando entre ReL = 10 e 1000. Para solução numérica das equações de conservação de massa, quantidade de movimento e energia é utilizado o método de volumes finitos (VFM), programa comercial Fluent®, sendo o acoplamento entre velocidade e pressão realizado através do algoritmo SIMPLEC e a discretização espacial pelo método upwind de primeira ordem. Os resultados apresentam um acréscimo significativo na transferência de calor entre a aleta e o fluido a medida que o número de Rayleigh aumenta. Considerando o caso de maior influência do mecanismo de transferência de calor por convecção mista houve um aumento de 779% em comparação com o mesmo caso considerando apenas convecção forçada, o que comprova a importância da convecção natural na maximização da transferência de calor entre cavidade e fluido para os casos analisados. / The present work shows a numerical study of laminar flow inside C-shaped lid-driven square cavity under mixed convection effect. The flow is assumed to be two-dimensional, laminar and permanent. The main objective of this work is by means of Constructal Design to maximize the heat transfer between the fluid and the heated central fin intruded in the bottom of the cavity. The aspect ratio of the cavity is fixed and the fin aspect ratio (H1/L1) varies from 0.1 to 10 ranges in order to maximize heat transfer. The ratio area between fin and cavity (H/L) = 1 is kept fixed at 5%. The thermophysical properties of fluid the air are set at Pr = 0,71. To vary the magnitude of buoyancy forces the Rayleigh number is ranged between Ra=10³ and 106.The inertial forces of flow are ranged by the use of different Reynolds numbers between ReL=10 and 1000. In order to solve the proposed problem, the commercial software Fluent® based on finite volume method was used to solve mass, momentum and energy equations, making the pressure-velocity couple using SIMPLEC method and the spatial discretization using first order upwind scheme. The results showed a significant increase of heat transfer between fin and fluid as consequence of Rayleigh number increase. Considering the mixed convection most influenced case, an increase of 779% was sense in comparison with the same case with forced convection mechanism only, which makes evident the importance of natural convection in the maximization of heat transfer inside cavity in the analized cases.

[pt] No processo de transporte e produção de petróleo e seus derivados em linhas submarinas, o controle da transferência de calor entre o produto quente e o mar frio, é fundamental para a garantia do escoamento. Se a temperatura do produto cair abaixo de determinados valores críticos, problemas como formação de hidratos ou deposição de parafina nas paredes da tubulação podem ocorrer, levando ao bloqueio da linha e interrupção de produção, demandando altos custos. A perda de calor para o ambiente é minimizada, através de isolantes térmicos projetados para operações em regime permanente. Nestes casos, devido às altas velocidades do escoamento axial, o qual é tipicamente turbulento, o processo de transferência de calor dominante é o de convecção forçada. Porém, durante uma operação de manutenção de algum equipamento, a produção pode ser interrompida e o fluido ficando parado no interior da linha, tende a resfriar-se podendo atingir uma temperatura crítica. Durante este resfriamento, na ausência de bombeio, o processo de convecção natural passa a dominar. O presente trabalho analisa o processo de transferência de calor após a parada de bombeio, considerando os efeitos da convecção natural no resfriamento do produto, assim como a influência da capacidade térmica da parede do duto e das camadas de revestimento no transiente térmico. Inicialmente, considera-se que o escoamento axial é rapidamente levado ao repouso e utiliza-se um modelo bidimensional da seção transversal do duto, utilizando três produtos típicos: um óleo leve, um óleo pesado, e um gás. Os campos de velocidade e temperatura são obtidos numericamente utilizando o software FLUENT, considerando a hipótese de Boussinesq para avaliar a convecção natural. A taxa de resfriamento obtida é comparada com a previsão de um modelo unidimensional na direção axial, que utiliza correlações empíricas para avaliar a transferência de calor entre o fluido a parede da tubulação, em função do regime de escoamento. Boa concordância entre as simulações para a seção central da linha é obtida. No entanto, como as variações axiais para o caso do gás são maiores, para este produto, um modelo tridimensional também foi analisado, onde se considerou os efeitos combinados da convecção forçada e natural. Adicionalmente, a hipótese de Boussinesq foi eliminada, e a equação de gás ideal foi considerada. / [en] Heat transfer control is crucial for flow assurance in transport as well as production operations of oil and its derivatives in subsea lines. If the product temperature falls below certain critical values, problems such as hydrate formation or wax deposition in the pipelines walls can occur, inducing line blockage and interruption of production, demanding high costs. The heat loss to the environment is minimized by employing thermal insulation, which are designed for stead state operations. For these cases, due to high axial velocities, the flow is typically turbulent, and the dominant heat transfer mechanism is due to convection forced. However, during maintenance operation of some equipment, the production can be interrupted and the stagnant fluid in the interior of the line tends to cool down and it can reach a critical temperature. During this cooling, in the absence of pumps, the process of natural convection begins to dominate. The present work analyzes the heat transfer process after flow shutdown, considering the effect of the natural convection, as well as the influence in the thermal transient of the thermal capacity of the duct wall and insulation layers. Initially, it is considered that the axial flow is set to rest very quickly and a two-dimensional model of the transversal section of the duct is employed, using three typical products: light oil, heavy oil and pressurized gas. The velocity and temperature filed are obtained using the numerical software FLUENT, considering the hypothesis of Boussinesq to evaluate the natural convection. The cooling rate is compared with the forecast of a unidimensional model in the axial direction based on empirical correlations, function of the flow regime, to evaluate the heat transfer between the fluid and the duct wall. Good agreement is obtained between the solutions of the 2-D model and the pipeline central cross section of the 1-D model. However, as the axial variations for the gas case are significant, for this product, a three-dimensional model also was analyzed, where it was considered the effects of the forced and natural convection. Additionally, the hypothesis of Boussinesq was eliminated, and the ideal gas equation was considered.

O presente trabalho apresenta um estudo numérico do escoamento laminar em cavidade quadrada aletada sob o efeito de convecção mista. O escoamento proposto é assumido bidimensional, laminar e permanente. Objetiva-se através do “Constructal Design” a obtenção de geometria ótima da aleta de forma a maximizar a transferência de calor entre o fluido que escoa no interior da cavidade e a aleta aquecida cuja base está localizada no centro da base da cavidade. Para isto é fixada a relação das dimensões externas da cavidade (H/L) = 1 e variada a relação entre altura e comprimento da aleta (H1/L1) para otimização da troca térmica. A área da aleta apresenta 5% da área total da cavidade e este valor é mantido fixo. O fluido que escoa no inteiror da cavidade possui as propriedades termofísicas do ar para Pr = 0,7. A variação das forças de empuxo no escoamento é realizada através do uso de diferentes números de Rayleigh no intervalo Ra= 10³ a 106. As diferentes magnitudes das forças inerciais serão aplicadas ao escoamento através da variação do número de Reynolds variando entre ReL = 10 e 1000. Para solução numérica das equações de conservação de massa, quantidade de movimento e energia é utilizado o método de volumes finitos (VFM), programa comercial Fluent®, sendo o acoplamento entre velocidade e pressão realizado através do algoritmo SIMPLEC e a discretização espacial pelo método upwind de primeira ordem. Os resultados apresentam um acréscimo significativo na transferência de calor entre a aleta e o fluido a medida que o número de Rayleigh aumenta. Considerando o caso de maior influência do mecanismo de transferência de calor por convecção mista houve um aumento de 779% em comparação com o mesmo caso considerando apenas convecção forçada, o que comprova a importância da convecção natural na maximização da transferência de calor entre cavidade e fluido para os casos analisados. / The present work shows a numerical study of laminar flow inside C-shaped lid-driven square cavity under mixed convection effect. The flow is assumed to be two-dimensional, laminar and permanent. The main objective of this work is by means of Constructal Design to maximize the heat transfer between the fluid and the heated central fin intruded in the bottom of the cavity. The aspect ratio of the cavity is fixed and the fin aspect ratio (H1/L1) varies from 0.1 to 10 ranges in order to maximize heat transfer. The ratio area between fin and cavity (H/L) = 1 is kept fixed at 5%. The thermophysical properties of fluid the air are set at Pr = 0,71. To vary the magnitude of buoyancy forces the Rayleigh number is ranged between Ra=10³ and 106.The inertial forces of flow are ranged by the use of different Reynolds numbers between ReL=10 and 1000. In order to solve the proposed problem, the commercial software Fluent® based on finite volume method was used to solve mass, momentum and energy equations, making the pressure-velocity couple using SIMPLEC method and the spatial discretization using first order upwind scheme. The results showed a significant increase of heat transfer between fin and fluid as consequence of Rayleigh number increase. Considering the mixed convection most influenced case, an increase of 779% was sense in comparison with the same case with forced convection mechanism only, which makes evident the importance of natural convection in the maximization of heat transfer inside cavity in the analized cases.

Le secteur tertiaire représente une source potentielle d'économie incontournable pour parvenir à réduire la dépendance énergétique de la France. Le taux de renouvellement du parc immobilier Français étant relativement faible, un effort doit être porté sur l'existant. Dans ces travaux, nous étudions un procédé innovant de rénovation par l'intérieur, dont l'élément principal est une paroi ventilée multifonctionnelle, assurant l'isolation, l'émission de chaleur basse température ainsi que la finition des surfaces murales. Les premiers travaux sur cette paroi ventilée furent menés sur un prototype dimensionné _a l'aide d'un modèle numérique simplifié. Deux séries d'expériences menées dans une cellule climatique nous ont permis de quantifier les flux de chaleur à travers le système. Le bon fonctionnement de la paroi ventilée repose sur les mécanismes de convection naturelle dans un canal vertical. Les résultats issus du prototype ont montré la présence de phénomènes complexes intervenant au sein de l'écoulement. Nous avons donc choisi d'étudier plus en détails les phénomènes thermoconvectifs dans un système du type source chaude/cheminée avant de poursuivre l'étude sur le système global. Une étude théorique et une expérience ont été menées sur un cas académique du problème. A l'issue des résultats expérimentaux, nous avons observé plusieurs régimes d'écoulements, dépendants du rapport de forme du canal et du nombre de Richardson en sortie. Enfin, nous proposons un modèle analytique de la paroi ventilée comprenant l'ensemble des variables géométriques influentes. Ce modèle a été implémenté dans l'environnement de simulation Trnsys, dans la perspective d'effectuer des simulations annuelles à l'échelle du bâtiment. / In France, energy consumption due to buildings heating is an important part of the global primary energy consumption. The tertiary sector represents an unavoidable source of economy in order to reduce energy dependency of France. The turnover of French real estate being relatively low, an effort must be focused on the existing. In this work, we investigate on an innovative process of internal thermal renovation, whose main element is a multifunctional ventilated wall, providing insulation, low temperature heat emission and the wall surfaces finishing. The first works on this ventilated wall were conducted on a prototype designed using a simplified numerical model. Two series of experiments conducted in a climatic cell allowed us to quantify the heat flow through the system. The smooth functioning of the ventilated wall is based on the natural convection in a vertical channel and the results from the prototype showed the presence of complex phenomena within the flow. We therefore chose to study in detail the thermoconvective phenomena in a chimney-like system before continuing the study of the overall component. A theoretical study and PIV experiment were conducted on an academic case of the problem. At the end of the experimental results, we observed several flow regimes, depending on the channel aspect ratio and the outlet Richardson number. Finally, we propose an analytical model of the ventilated wall including all influential geometrical variables. This model has been implemented in the simulation environment Trnsys with the perspective to make annual simulations on a building scale.

La réglementation thermique sur les bâtiments en France impose le recours aux énergies renouvelables. L'énergie solaire, à la fois thermique et photovoltaïque, présente un grand potentiel en termes de disponibilité. Néanmoins, du fait de son caractère intermittent, des systèmes de stockage associés sont nécessaires. Pour ce qui est des systèmes solaires thermiques, les capteurs solaires intégrant le stockage (CSIS) ont pour avantages une grande simplicité ainsi que des coûts réduits comparés à des systèmes plus classiques. Ils permettent également d'éviter la problématique de la mise en place du stockage, les rendant ainsi adaptés à la rénovation énergétique.Le présent travail de thèse étudie les phénomènes de convection naturelle dans une cavité fermée à haut rapport de forme (H/L = 13) représentant le réservoir de stockage d'un CSIS. Dans un premier temps, un état de l'art des systèmes existants ainsi qu'une étude bibliographique de l'étude de ces systèmes et des phénomènes s'y déroulant sont réalisés. Il y est mis en évidence l'importance de la stratification des températures au sein du réservoir pour l'amélioration des performances globales du système. Dans un second temps, une étude expérimentale de la cavité est effectuée pour la compréhension des écoulements liés à la mise en place d'une stratification thermique satisfaisante, ainsi que des paramètres pouvant l'influencer. Dans cette étude, une plaque de stratification est ajoutée à l'intérieur de la cavité pour canaliser le fluide chaud ascendant, limitant ainsi le brassage. La zone de chauffe représentant l'échange entre la boucle solaire et le réservoir est placée au milieu de la face supérieure du système, résultant en une bonne stratification. Un écoulement inverse est observé au niveau de la sortie de ce canal. Ce phénomène est principalement responsable de l'écart de température obtenu entre le haut et le bas du système. Une étude numérique CFD du système a donc été conduite pour étudier l'influence de différents paramètres sur le comportement thermique et de l'écoulement. La diminution de l'écoulement inverse permet une meilleure circulation du fluide dans la globalité du système. Afin de déterminer si la stratification thermique observée dans le système de stockage conduit à une performance énergétique annuelle satisfaisante du capteur auto-stockeur, une modélisation nodale a été effectuée. Différents paramètres tels que la position de la zone d'échange entre le collecteur et le réservoir de stockage, ou encore l'épaisseur de l'isolant ont été étudiés pour quantifier leur influence sur les performances du système complet. / Thermal regulation for dwellings in France makes the resort to renewable energy mandatory. Solar energy has an important potential regarding its availability, for both thermal and photovoltaic applications. However, due to its intermittency, there is a need for a storing device. Concerning solar thermal systems, Integrated Collector Storage Solar Water Heaters (ICSSWH) have the advantage of a simple design and use combined with reduced costs compared to more classical devices. These systems also enable to avoid the problem of finding space for the installation of a storage system in an existing building, making them more suitable for energy renovation of houses.This present work studies the phenomena of natural convection in an enclosed cavity with high aspect ratio (H/L = 13) representing the storage of an ICSSWH. Firstly, a state of the art of existing systems as well as a literature review of these systems and of the phenomena occurring in them are conducted. The importance of thermal stratification inside the storage tank for the increase of global efficiency for the whole system is highlighted. Secondly, an experimental study of the cavity is performed to understand the fluid flow linked to the satisfying stratification obtained in the system, and find the parameters influencing it. In the experimental setup, a stratification plate is added inside the cavity to harness the ascending hot flow, hence limiting the mixing of fluid which is responsible for the destratification. The heated zone, which represents the exchange between the solar collector and the storage, is placed in the middle of the upper wall of the system, resulting in a good thermal stratification. A reverse flow can be observed at the channel outlet, which is the main parameter for the high temperature difference obtained between the top and the bottom of our system. A CFD study of the experimented system is then conducted to determine the influence of several parameters on the thermal and fluid flow behavior of the system. The decrease of reverse flow allows a better loop of the fluid in the whole cavity. In order to discover whether the thermal stratification observed in the storage leads to a better annual efficiency for the whole ICSSWH, a nodal model is used. Several parameters such as the position of the heat exchange zone between the collector and the storage or the insulation thickness are studied to quantify their influence on thermal stratification, and hence on the overall efficiency of the system.