Thesis (MScEng)--Stellenbosch University, 2012. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Radar Cross Section (RCS) is an important parameter in radar engineering. Often, electrically large structures are of interest in RCS analysis due to the high operating frequencies of radar systems. Simulation of these problems can be more e cient than measurement due to the cost associated with measurement. The Method of Moments/Physical Optics (MoM/PO) hybrid method combines the advantages of the MoM and PO, making it suited to solving electrically large problems that may contain some small complex detail. The requirement for high meshing resolution when analysing some electromagnetic problems, however, signi cantly increases memory requirements. As a result, the hybrid MoM/PO becomes computationally expensive for electrically large problems. In this work, a linear phase term is introduced into the RWG basis function formulation of the MoM/PO hybrid. The addition of the linear phase term allows the use of large triangular mesh elements in the PO region, resulting in the analysis of electrically large problems. The bene t of this formulation is that it allows a reduction in computational cost whilst maintaining the accuracy of the hybrid MoM/PO. This improved hybrid is tested on various planar test cases and results show that it attains the same level of accuracy as the original MoM/PO hybrid. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Radardeursnit is 'n belangrike parameter in radaringenieurswese. As gevolg van die hoë frekwensies wat deur baie radarstelsels gebruik word, is elektriesgroot probleme dikwels van belang in die berekening van die radardeursnit van teikens. Die modellering en berekening van die radardeursnit van teikens kan meer kostedoeltre end as metings wees, as gevolg van die beduidende koste van radardeursnitmetings. Die hibriede Moment-Metode/Fisiese-Optika tegniek kombineer die voordele van die twee tegnieke, wat dit geskik maak vir elektries-groot probleme met klein, komplekse detail. Indien die gewone benadering egter gevolg word om 'n hoë resolusie faset-model te gebruik, bly dit berekeningsintensief met groot rekenaar geheuevereistes vir elektries-groot probleme. In hierdie studie word 'n lineêre fase term ingesluit in die formulering van die Rao-Wilton-Glisson (RWG) basisfunksies vorm van die hibriede Moment-Metode/Fisiese-Optika tegniek. Die toevoeging van die lineêre fase term maak dit moontlik om groot driehoekfasette in die Fisiese-Optika gebied te gebruik, wat beteken dat elektries-groot probleme makliker opgelos kan word. Die voordeel van hierdie nuwe formulering is dat die berekeningslas en -tyd verminder word terwyl die akkuraatheid van die oorspronklike hibriede Moment-Metode/Fisiese-Optika tegniek behou word. Hierdie verbeterde hibriede tegniek word getoets aan die hand van verskeie platvlak toetsgevalle en die resultate dui daarop dat die akkuraatheid vergelykbaar is met die van die oorspronklike hibriede Moment-Metode/Fisiese-Optika tegniek.

In high frequency computational electromagnetics, rigorous numerical methods be come unrealistic tools due to computational demand increasing with the frequency. Instead approximations to the solutions of the Maxwell equations can be employed to evaluate th electromagnetic fields. In this thesis, we present the implementations of three high frequency approximat methods. The first two, namely the Geometrical Theory of Diffraction (GTD) and th Physical Optics (PO), are commonly used approximations. The third is a new invention that will be referred to as the Surface Current Extraction-Extrapolation (SCEE). Specifically, the GTD solver is a flexible and modular software package which use Non-Uniform Rational B-spline (NURBS) surfaces to model complex geometries. The PO solver is based on a triangular description of the surfaces and includes fas shadowing by ray tracing as well as contribution from edges to the scattered fields. GTD ray tracing was combined with the PO solver by a well thought-out software architecture Both implementations are now part of the GEMS software suite, the General ElectroMag netic Solvers, which incorporates state-of-the-art numerical methods. During validations both GTD and PO techniques turned out not to be accurate enough to meet the indus trial standards, thus creating the need for a new fast approximate method providing bette control of the approximations. In the SCEE approach, we construct high frequency approximate surface currents ex trapolated from rigourous Method of Moments (MoM) models at lower frequency. T do so, the low frequency currents are projected onto special basis vectors defined on th surface relative to the direction of the incident magnetic field. In such configuration, w observe that each component displays systematic spatial patterns evolving over frequenc in close correlation with the incident magnetic field, thus allowing us to formulate a fre quency model for each component. This new approach is fast, provides good control of th error and represents a platform for future development of high frequency approximations. As an application, we have used these tools to analyse the radar detectability of a new marine distress signaling device. The device, called "Rescue-Wing", works as an inflatabl radar reflector designed to provide a strong radar echo useful for detection and positionin during rescue operations of persons missing at sea. / QC 20101004

<p>Climate change and the energy crisis are substantial challenges facing the human species, and they are projected to threaten life on our planet. For millions of years, the sun has been the main source of energy for life on Earth; this inspires ongoing research efforts focusing on a “sunlight to fuel” energy solution. Photosynthesis is nature’s tool to derive energy from the sun. Hence, scientists focus on the biochemistry of this phenomenon to employ photosynthesis in a man-made device. Such a device is able to convert solar energy to chemical energy through a light-driven cycle of the chemical reactions which produce hydrogen gas, later used as fuel. This process, often called “artificial photosynthesis,” needs efficient catalysts which can be incorporated into a molecular assembly and other microscopic structures or immobilized on an electrode surface. </p><p>Additionally, evolution, in the course of billions of years, chose manganese as an abundant and effective metal to facilitate the process of photosynthesis. These manganese atoms formed a cluster and an optimized ligand field to maximize efficiency. The photochemistry and photo-physics process behind photosynthesis is yet to be fully understood and implemented in a man-made apparatus with comparable efficiency and durability. </p><p>Photosynthesis requires a source of electrons. Water is an abundant molecule on earth that can provide the electrons needed for the photosynthesis. Although water is ubiquitous, it is one of the most stable molecules; hence, splitting it demands a well-designed system with strong oxidizing capability. Because a single atom of oxygen is highly reactive, there should be at least four oxidation states in the system to remove four electrons and release molecular oxygen: O2. The O-O bond formation is one of the most important steps in photosynthesis to fully understand. Lacking a thorough knowledge of this step prevents design and fabrication of robust and active water oxidizing catalysts. To fully understand O-O formation, one should perform a comprehensive study of each of the intermediates of the system. In other words, we need an understanding of the structure and electronic configuration of the system (natural or artificial) from the moment that a water molecule attaches to the catalyst (usually a metal core, central in the complex), until the moment that oxygen released as an O2 molecule. </p><p>There are multiple possible mechanisms to explain O-O formation. Two mechanisms that were extensively studied in this thesis are water nucleophilic attack and radical coupling. The prevailing view about oxygen formation in the catalysts that we study here explains the O-O bond formation by nucleophilic attack of a water molecule to a highly oxidized ruthenium (RuV=O) species. In this hypothesis, all polypyridine ligands that are coordinated to ruthenium remain neutral during the water oxidation process, while the formation of RuV=O (the key intermediate) would require a relatively high free energy (about 1.8 to 2 eV); use of computational (numerical) calculations determine this to be thermodynamically inaccessible. Furthermore, the failure of spectroscopic techniques to confirm the presence of RuV=O calls the validity of this model into question.)</p><p>Alternatively, radical coupling hypothesis considers another pathway to oxygen bond formation. Here, one of the nitrogen atoms coordinated to ruthenium in polypyridine plays a crucial role. We hypothesize that after formation of RuIV=O (which is spectroscopically observed), one nitrogen decoordinates from the metallic core (ruthenium) and oxidizes to form Ru-ON species. This N-oxide ligand can be further oxidized to form a ligand cation radical. It has been shown that [ligand-NO]+• can have almost no energy barrier for O-O bond formation via spin alignment. The study of the role of N-oxide is one of the main focuses of this work. Since this hypothesis does not require RuV=O nor water nucleophilic attack, it explains the process of water oxidation and opens further avenues for the design of future catalysts.</p><p>To confirm our hypothesis, I employed several spectroscopic methods and computational calculations. This new pathway predicts new intermediates exclusive to this model. Our objective is to prove their presence by in situ spectroscopy and test the possibility of formation of each intermediate computationally, to see if their formation is thermodynamically feasible. </p><div><br></div>

The potential for high spatio-temporal resolution microwave measurements has urged the adoption of the signals of opportunity (SoOp) passive radar technique for use in remote sensing. Recent trends in particular target highly complex remote sensing problems such as root-zone soil moisture and snow water equivalent. This dissertation explores the continued open-sourcing of the SoOp coherent bistatic scattering model (SCoBi) and its use in soil moisture sensing applications. Starting from ground-based applications, the feasibility of root-zone soil moisture remote sensing is assessed using available SoOp resources below L-band. A modularized, spaceborne model is then developed to simulate land-surface scattering and delay-Doppler maps over the available spectrum of SoOp resources. The simulation tools are intended to provide insights for future spaceborne modeling pursuits.

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No description available.

This thesis presents an efficient self-consistent Hybrid Spectral Ray Tracing (HSRT) technique for analysis and design of multi-scale sub-millimeter wave problems, where sub-wavelength features are modeled using rigorous methods, and complex structures with dimensions in the order of tens or even hundreds of wavelengths are modeled by asymptotic methods. Quasi-optical devices are used in imaging arrays for sub-millimeter and terahertz applications, THz time-domain spectroscopy (THz-TDS), high-speed wireless communications, and space applications to couple terahertz radiation from space to a hot electron bolometer. These devices and structures, as physically small they have become, are very large in terms of the wavelength of the driving quasi-optical sources and may have dimension in the tens or even hundreds of wavelengths. Simulation and design optimization of these devices and structures is an extremely challenging electromagnetic problem. The analysis of complex electrically large unbounded wave structures using rigorous methods such as method of moments (MoM), finite element method (FEM), and finite difference time domain (FDTD) method can become almost impossible due to the need for large computational resources. Asymptotic high-frequency techniques are used for analysis of electrically large quasi-optical systems and hybrid methods for solving multi-scale problems. Spectral Ray Tracing (SRT) has a number of unique advantages as a candidate for hybridization. The SRT method has the advantages of Spectral Theory of Diffraction (STD). STD can model reflection, refraction and diffraction of an arbitrary wave incident on the complex structure, which is not the case for diffraction theories such as Geometrical Theory of Diffraction (GTD), Uniform theory of Diffraction (UTD) and Uniform Asymptotic Theory (UAT). By including complex rays, SRT can effectively analyze both near-fields and far-fields accurately with minimal approximations. In this thesis, a novel matrix representation of SRT is presented that uses only one spectral integration per observation point and applied to modeling a hemispherical and hyper-hemispherical lens. The hybridization of SRT with commercially available FEM and MoM software is proposed in this work to solve the complexity of multi-scale analysis. This yields a computationally efficient self-consistent HSRT algorithm. Various arrangements of the Hybrid SRT method such as FEM-SRT, and MoM-SRT, are investigated and validated through comparison of radiation patterns with Ansoft HFSS for the FEM method, FEKO for MoM, Multi-level Fast Multipole Method (MLFMM) and physical optics. For that a bow-tie terahertz antenna backed by hyper-hemispherical silicon lens, an on-chip planar dipole fabricated in SiGe:C BiCMOS technology and attached to a hyper-hemispherical silicon lens and a double-slot antenna backed by silica lens will be used as sample structures to be analyzed using the HSRT. Computational performance (memory requirement, CPU/GPU time) of developed algorithm is compared to other methods in commercially available software. It is shown that the MoM-SRT, in its present implementation, is more accurate than MoM-PO but comparable in speed. However, as shown in this thesis, MoM-SRT can take advantage of parallel processing and GPU. The HSRT algorithm is applied to simulation of on-chip dipole antenna backed by Silicon lens and integrated with a 180-GHz VCO and radiation pattern compared with measurements. The radiation pattern is measured in a quasi-optical configuration using a power detector. In addition, it is shown that the matrix formulation of SRT and HSRT are promising approaches for solving complex electrically large problems with high accuracy. This thesis also expounds on new measurement setup specifically developed for measuring integrated antennas, radiation pattern and gain of the embedded on-chip antenna in the mmW/ terahertz range. In this method, the radiation pattern is first measured in a quasi-optical configuration using a power detector. Subsequently, the radiated power is estimated form the integration over the radiation pattern. Finally, the antenna gain is obtained from the measurement of a two-antenna system.

This thesis presents an efficient self-consistent Hybrid Spectral Ray Tracing (HSRT) technique for analysis and design of multi-scale sub-millimeter wave problems, where sub-wavelength features are modeled using rigorous methods, and complex structures with dimensions in the order of tens or even hundreds of wavelengths are modeled by asymptotic methods. Quasi-optical devices are used in imaging arrays for sub-millimeter and terahertz applications, THz time-domain spectroscopy (THz-TDS), high-speed wireless communications, and space applications to couple terahertz radiation from space to a hot electron bolometer. These devices and structures, as physically small they have become, are very large in terms of the wavelength of the driving quasi-optical sources and may have dimension in the tens or even hundreds of wavelengths. Simulation and design optimization of these devices and structures is an extremely challenging electromagnetic problem. The analysis of complex electrically large unbounded wave structures using rigorous methods such as method of moments (MoM), finite element method (FEM), and finite difference time domain (FDTD) method can become almost impossible due to the need for large computational resources. Asymptotic high-frequency techniques are used for analysis of electrically large quasi-optical systems and hybrid methods for solving multi-scale problems. Spectral Ray Tracing (SRT) has a number of unique advantages as a candidate for hybridization. The SRT method has the advantages of Spectral Theory of Diffraction (STD). STD can model reflection, refraction and diffraction of an arbitrary wave incident on the complex structure, which is not the case for diffraction theories such as Geometrical Theory of Diffraction (GTD), Uniform theory of Diffraction (UTD) and Uniform Asymptotic Theory (UAT). By including complex rays, SRT can effectively analyze both near-fields and far-fields accurately with minimal approximations. In this thesis, a novel matrix representation of SRT is presented that uses only one spectral integration per observation point and applied to modeling a hemispherical and hyper-hemispherical lens. The hybridization of SRT with commercially available FEM and MoM software is proposed in this work to solve the complexity of multi-scale analysis. This yields a computationally efficient self-consistent HSRT algorithm. Various arrangements of the Hybrid SRT method such as FEM-SRT, and MoM-SRT, are investigated and validated through comparison of radiation patterns with Ansoft HFSS for the FEM method, FEKO for MoM, Multi-level Fast Multipole Method (MLFMM) and physical optics. For that a bow-tie terahertz antenna backed by hyper-hemispherical silicon lens, an on-chip planar dipole fabricated in SiGe:C BiCMOS technology and attached to a hyper-hemispherical silicon lens and a double-slot antenna backed by silica lens will be used as sample structures to be analyzed using the HSRT. Computational performance (memory requirement, CPU/GPU time) of developed algorithm is compared to other methods in commercially available software. It is shown that the MoM-SRT, in its present implementation, is more accurate than MoM-PO but comparable in speed. However, as shown in this thesis, MoM-SRT can take advantage of parallel processing and GPU. The HSRT algorithm is applied to simulation of on-chip dipole antenna backed by Silicon lens and integrated with a 180-GHz VCO and radiation pattern compared with measurements. The radiation pattern is measured in a quasi-optical configuration using a power detector. In addition, it is shown that the matrix formulation of SRT and HSRT are promising approaches for solving complex electrically large problems with high accuracy. This thesis also expounds on new measurement setup specifically developed for measuring integrated antennas, radiation pattern and gain of the embedded on-chip antenna in the mmW/ terahertz range. In this method, the radiation pattern is first measured in a quasi-optical configuration using a power detector. Subsequently, the radiated power is estimated form the integration over the radiation pattern. Finally, the antenna gain is obtained from the measurement of a two-antenna system.

Étant donné l'urgence environnementale, le développement des énergies renouvelables s'est fortement accru ces dernières années. L'implantation de champs d'éoliennes est notamment en pleine expansion dans toute l'Europe. Ces éoliennes, de structure diélectrique et métallique et de grande taille, peuvent avoir un impact significatif sur les systèmes radiofréquences. En particulier, les systèmes de radionavigation et de surveillance opérés par la DGAC (VOR, radar) doivent cohabiter avec de nouveaux champs d'éoliennes. En effet, ces dernières influent sur le champ électromagnétique des systèmes et peuvent dégrader leurs performances (multitrajets, masquages... ). Il est alors important de pouvoir quantifier ces dégradations, en particulier dans le cas du VOR où les multitrajets engendrent une erreur de relèvement. Dans ce travail de thèse, un simulateur électromagnétique appelé VERSO (VOR ERror SimulatOr) est développé. Il permet d'estimer l'impact d'objets diffractants, en particulier d'éoliennes, sur le signal VOR. Dans la littérature, différentes techniques de modélisation sont proposées pour prédire ces phénomènes. Certaines sont trop approximatives, d'autres trop coûteuses en temps. Ainsi, le choix des techniques utilisées dans ce simulateur a été guidé par le compromis entre précision et temps de calcul. L'équation parabolique est utilisée pour modéliser la propagation de la source jusqu'aux éoliennes afin de prendre en compte le relief. Ensuite, une méthode d'optique physique sur matériaux diélectriques est mise en œuvre pour calculer le champ diffracté par ces objets. Le modèle électromagnétique de l'éolienne et les hypothèses inhérentes aux méthodes utilisées par VERSO ont été validés aux fréquences VHF (VOR) par comparaison avec la méthode des moments qui fait office de référence. Une extension de VERSO pour les systèmes radars a été abordée. Par conséquent des validations similaires à ces fréquences ont été réalisées. Plus spécifiquement, un modèle de pale d'éolienne prenant en compte la présence du parafoudre est proposé aux fréquences VOR et radar. Les effets de masquage sont eux aussi quantifiés pour ces 2 domaines de fréquences. Il est notamment démontré que l'effet de masquage pour des éoliennes alignées radialement à un VOR est négligeable. Cette approximation ainsi que le modèle de pale sont ensuite utilisés dans le programme VERSO. Ce dernier est validé à l'aide de contrôles en vol sur un scénario de 9 éoliennes implantées à 5 km du VOR de Boulogne-sur-Mer. Une étude quantitative de l'impact de chaque partie des éoliennes est menée afin de discriminer la source majoritaire d'erreur VOR. On constate notamment qu'à grande distance du VOR dans le scénario d'observation considéré, le mât constitue le principal contributeur en terme de champ diffracté et d'erreur VOR. Enfin, une étude statistique sur l'erreur VOR a permis d'obtenir un simulateur de scénarios qui donne l'erreur maximale avec une confiance fixée, en minimisant le nombre de simulations à effectuer. Pour accélérer cette méthode, une expression analytique approchée de l'erreur VOR maximum a été développée en fonction de la distance d'implantation et de la hauteur du mât de l'éolienne. Cette dernière étude fournit une méthode rapide pour évaluer l'impact de la construction d'un champ d'éoliennes quelconque à proximité de systèmes de l'aviation civile. / Considering the ecological emergency, the renewable energy development has greatly increased for a decade. In particular, the windfarms implantation rapidly expands in Europe. These windturbines are large obstacles composed by dielectric and metallic materials. So their impact on electromagnetic devices is significant. The radionavigation systems for the civil aviation services are particularly concerned. However, they have to work side with new windfarms. Actually, these latter cause scattering effects on the electromagnetic signals and can degrade the performances of these equipments (multipaths, shadowing effects etc.). Thus, quantifying these degradations is crucial, particularly on the VOR devices where multipath effects cause an error on the azimuth. In this thesis work, an electromagnetic simulator called VERSO (VOR ERror SimulatOr) is developed. It can estimate the impact of scattering objects, especially windturbines, on the VOR signal. In literature, several techniques are proposed to model these phenomena: some make coarse approximations and some others are memory intensive. Thus, the choice over the methods used in VERSO is a compromise between precision and memory requirement. The parabolic equation is used to model the propagation from the source to the windturbines so as to take the relief into account. A physical optic based method is used to compute the field scattered by these objects. The electromagnetic model of the windturbine and the hypothesis due to the methods used by VERSO have been validated in the VHF (VOR) frequency by comparison with the method of moments, which is the reference. An extension of VERSO for the radar systems is introduced. Consequently similar validations have been performed at radar frequencies. In particular, a windturbine blade model taking into account the lightning protection is proposed for the VOR and the radar frequencies. The shadowing effects are also quantified in both frequency domains. Especially, a demonstration that the shadowing effects due to radially implemented windturbines can be neglected around a VOR beacon is proposed. This approximation and the blade model are used for the implementation of VERSO. This simulator is validated by comparison with measurements on 9 windturbines built 5~km far from a VORC in Boulogne-sur-Mer (France). A study is performed to quantify the influence of each part of the windturbine. The mast is shown to be the main contributor regarding to the electromagnetic field and the VOR error. Finally, parametric simulations are performed and analytic expressions are proposed to describe the evolution of the maximum VOR error with respect to the mast size and the distance VOR-windturbine. The latter study gives some key parameters that need to be considered for the elaboration of a windfarm building plan close to civil aviation systems for the project to be viable.

[pt] O objetivo deste trabalho é o estudo e desenvolvimento de técnicas assintóticas que permitiam a análise do espalhamento de ondas eletromagnéticas por superfícies condutoras, diretamente do domínio do tempo. São introduzidas versões temporais de métodos de rastreamento de raios e de técnicas de correntes induzidas e equivalentes, as quais são deduzidas a partir de seus correspondentes do domínio da frequência mediante o uso da transformada inversa de Fourier e de uma representação analítica de sinais. As formulações obtidas aplicam-se à análise da resposta transiente do espalhamento eletromagnético por objetos condutores que tem grandes dimensões físicas em termos de largura do pulso incidente, e têm a forma de expressões analíticas relativamente simples, válidas para instantes de tempo próximos à chegada das pimeiras frentes de onda aos pontos de observação. As técnicas obtidas são estendidas à aplicação na determinação a resposta de antenas refletoras convencionais iluminadas por exitações pulsadas e têm sua validade verificada comparando-se com as soluções obtidas por uma solução numérica de referência baseada no Método dos Momentos para o domínio da frequência (MoM) e correspondente inversão para o domínio do tempo através de um algoritmo de transformada rápida de Fourier (IFFT). / [en] This work is concerned the study and development of asymptotic methods for the time-domain analysis of eletromagnetic scattering by perfectly conducting surfaces. Time-domain versions of the well known ray tracing methods and surface-induced and equivalent edge currents are derived by means of a Fourier inversion and the use of an analytical signal representation. The resulting formulations can be applied to the transient analysis of EM scattering by perfectly conducting objects that are large in terms of the incident pulse width, and are presented in the form of relatively simple analytical expressions that are valid in the neighborhood of the instant of arrival of the first wavefronts to the obseration points. These so derived time-domain asymptotic techniques are extended to accomodate the determination of the response to pulse- excited conventional reflector antenas and their validity is ascertained by means of a comparison with a referece solution based on the frequency-domain Method of Moments (MoM) and its inversion into the time domain via a fast Fourier transform algorithm (IFFT). / [es] EL objetivo de este trabajo es el estudio y desarrollo de técnicas asintóticas que permitan el análisis del esparcimiento de ondas eletromagnéticas por superficies conductoras, directamente del dominio del tiempo. Se introducen versiones temporales de métodos de rastreamiento de rayos y de técnicas de corrientes inducidas y equivalentes, las cuales son deducidas a partir de sus correspondientes del dominio de la frecuencia mediante el uso de la transformada inversa de Fourier y de una representación analítica de señales. Las formulaciones obtenidas se aplican al análisis de la respuesta transiente del esparcimiento eletromagnético por objetos conductores que tienen grandes dimensiones físicas en término de ancho del pulso incidente, y tiene la forma de expresiones analíticas relativamente simples, válidas para instantes de tiempo próximos a la llegada de las primeras frentes de onda a los puntos de observación. Las técnicas obtenidas se aplican en la determinación la respuesta de antenas reflectoras convencionales iluminadas por exitaciones pulsadas y se verifica su validad comparando con las soluciones obtenidas por una solución numérica de referencia basada en el Método de los Momentos para el dominio de la frecuencia (MoM) y la correspondente inversión para el dominio del tiempo a través de un algoritmo de transformada rápida de Fourier (IFFT).