[pt] Uma investigação da capacidade de previsão de modelos de turbulência baseados na modelagem estatística clássica e de grandes escalas é apresentada. A modelagem estatística clássica de turbulência (média de Reynolds) foi analisada, através da solução de escoamentos complexos, como, por exemplo, o escoamento turbulento em degrau (backstep). Especial atenção foi dada aos modelos kapa-epsilon de baixo Reynolds e as variantes renormalizadas (RNG). O comportamento dos vários termos da equação da energia cinética turbulenta na região da parede foram analisados em detalhes, especialmente o termo de difusão de pressão. Avaliou-se a importância da correta modelagem do termo de difusão de pressão sobre as predições dos modelos de baixo número de Reynolds, nas regiões de recirculação. Alguns modelos, propostos na literatura para o termo de difusão de pressão, foram também avaliados teórica e numericamente. A capacidade de previsão da metodologia de simulação de grandes escalas (LES por Large Eddy Simulation) também foi realizada. O desempenho do modelo de Smagorinsky para prever escoamentos limitados por fronteiras sólidas foi avaliado do ponto de vista computacional. Utilizou-se o método de volumes finitos para integrar tanto as equações médias de Reynolds quanto as equações LES. O escoamento turbulento em canal foi resolvido de modo bidimensional e tridimensional. Já o escoamento em degrau (backstep) foi resolvido exclusivamente de modo bidimensional, enquanto o escoamento em um duto de seção quadrada foi simulado de modo tridimensional. Os resultados foram comparados com aqueles obtidos pelos modelos de baixo Reynolds, analisando-se a relação custo-benefício. / [en] An investigation of turbulence models prediction capacity based on classical statistical modeling and large eddy simulation (LES) is presented. The classical statistical modeling (average of Reynolds) was analyzed, by investigating the solution of complex flows, as, for example, the turbulent flow past a backwardfacing- step (backstep). Special attention was given to low Reynolds number k-e models and models derived by renormalization group theory (RNG). The behavior of the different terms in the turbulent kinetic energy equation in the near wall region was examined in details, specially the pressure diffusion term. It was evaluated the importance of the correct modeling of the pressure diffusion term on the predictions of the low Reynolds number models, in recirculating flows. A few models, proposed in the literature for the pressure diffusion term, were also evaluated theoretically and numerically. The prediction capacity of large eddy simulation (LES) technique was also investigated. The ability of Smagorinsky model to predict complex limited wall flows was analyzed from a computational standpoint. The finite-volume method was employed to integrate both the Reynolds average and LES equations. The fully developed turbulent channel flow was solved in two- dimensional and three-dimensional numerical simulations. The turbulent flow over a backward-facing-step was computed exclusively in a twodimensional manner, while the fully developed turbulent flow in a straight square duct was simulated in a three-dimensional manner. The results were compared with those obtained by the low Reynolds models, analyzing the cost-benefit relation.

The legislation has forced the vehicle industry to reduce tail-end emissions. The air pollutant nitrogen oxide (NOX) has been shown to have a negative impact on human health and the environment. One of the key technologies to reduce the levels of NOX emitted from a vehicle is by implementing an after-treatment system. The after-treatment system includes catalysts, a particle filter and an evaporation system. In the evaporation system a liquid jet containing a urea-water solution known as AdBlue is injected into the hot exhaust gases to evaporate into gaseous ammonia NH3 and water H2O. Then NH3 enters the Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) catalyst where it chemically reacts with NOX to form N2 and H2O. Problems can arise if an excessive amount of AdBlue is injected and a fluid film is formed on evaporation surfaces. At certain operating conditions the fluid film can crystallise and form solid deposits. The solid deposits can cause high back-pressure, material deterioration and ammonia slip. This project is done in collaboration with Scania CV AB. Scania is a world-leading manufacturer of heavy-duty vehicles, busses and engines. Scania works continuously to develop new simulation methods to capture the complex phenomena of AdBlue spray, wall film dynamics and risk of solid deposits, to use in the development process of new components. The aim of this project is to implement and evaluate a new method to predict the risk of crystallisation of urea (AdBlue) using the software Star-CCM+. Two different geometries are studied, a test rig and a Scania silencer. Different operating conditions, parameter settings and a speed-up method are analysed. During the project a base-line model has been created and the results have been compared with measurement results and the software AVL Fire. The results on the test rig show the effect of altering the mesh and important model parameters. Injected particles are grouped into parcels with the same properties. The number of parcels is a crucial factor for the wall film formation and should be sufficiently high to get a statistical representation of the droplet size distribution. The results from the real silencer show strong evaporation and thin wall film formation with the suggested method. The method is shown to be stable and the software is user-friendly. A speed-up method was investigated to decrease the computational time. The computational time was reduced by a factor 20. The outcome of this project is a guide for set-up of AdBlue spray and wall film simulations. Recommendations to future work includes further validation of the settings, investigation of the evaporation rate and droplet size distribution and the application to other cases. The next step is also to tune the critical thresholds for deposit risk assessment. / Lagstiftning har tvingat fordonstillverkare att minska avgasutsläppen. Luftföroreningen kväveoxid (NOX) har visat sig ha en negativ inverkan på människors hälsa och på miljön. En viktig teknik för att minska utsläppen av NOX ¨ar att implementera ett efterbehandlingssystem. Efterbehandlingssystemet tar hand om avgaserna genom substrat, filter och ett förångningssystem. I förångningssystemet sprutas en urea-vattenlösning, som kallas AdBlue, in i de heta avgaserna där den förångas till ammoniak NH3 och vatten H2O. Ammoniakgasen leds därefter in till SCR katalysatorn där den kemiskt reagerar med NOX och bildar kvävgas N2 och vattenånga. Problem kan uppstå om fel mängd AdBlue sprutas in, då kan vätska byggas upp på förångsningsytor, kristallisera och bilda avlagringar. Avlagringarna kan bygga upp en solid klump som kan orsaka ett högt mottryck, nedbrytning av material och ammoniakslip. Detta arbete är ett samarbete med Scania CV AB som är en världsledande producent av lastbilar, bussar och motorer. Scania arbetar kontinuerligt med att utveckla nya simuleringsvertyg för att beskriva uppkomsten av Urea avlagringar för att använda i utvecklingen av nya komponenter. Syftet med detta arbete är att implementera och utvärdera en ny metod för att prediktera klump mha simuleringsverktyget Star-CCM+. Två olika geometrier är använd i arbetet: en testrigg och en av Scanias ljuddämpare. Olika driftspunkter, parametrar och en uppsnabbad metod är studerade. Under projektets gång har en modell byggts upp och jämförts med mätningar och simuleringar från programvaran AVL Fire. Resultatet från simuleringarna på testriggen visar effekten av att variera olika parametrar. Partiklarna som sprutas in i systemet är grupperade i paket med liknande egenskaper. Antalet paket påverkar uppbyggnaden av väggfilm och det rekommenderas att denna parameter hålls hög för att statistiskt beskriva droppfördelningen av partiklar. Resultaten på ljuddämparen visar en stark förångning och en tunn väggfilm för samtliga driftspunkter. Den implementerade metoden har visat sig vara stabil och användarvänlig. En uppsnabbad metod har utvärderats för att minska beräkningstiden. Beräkningstiden kunde minskas med en faktor 20. Resultatet av arbetet är en guide för hur metoden implementeras och bör användas. Rekommendationer till framtida arbete är en fortsatt undersökning av parametrar, utvärdering av förångningsmodellen, validering av droppstorleksfördelningen och tillämpningen på andra geometrier. Nästa steg i utvecklingen skulle vara att kalibrera tröskelvärden för prediktering av klump.

Cette thèse porte sur la simulation des jets de gouttes générés par des pulvérisateurs essence haute pression, pulvérisateurs qui sont un point clef des systèmes de combustion automobile de la présente et future génération devant diminuer les émissions de CO2 et de polluants. Dans un premier temps les jets de gouttes (« sprays ») sont simulés par simulation moyennée. Les résultats de simulation d’un jet donnant des résultats en moyenne satisfaisant, l'interaction de jets en injecteurs multi-trous est alors simulée. Les résultats sont cohérents par rapport aux mesures d'entraînement d’air. La simulation permettant d'avoir accès au champ complet 3D, le mécanisme d'interaction jet à jet et de développement instationnaire du spray est décrit en détail. La formation d’un mouvement descendant au centre du spray et celle d'un point d'arrêt central sont trouvés. Finalement, Ces résultats sont étendus au cas surchauffé, cas où la pression dans la chambre est inférieure à la pression de vapeur saturante. Un modèle simple semi-empirique est proposé pour tenir compte de la modification des conditions proches de la buse d’injection. Le modèle prédit correctement les tendances des variations de paramètres et capture la forme générale du spray qui se referme sur lui-même. La seconde grande partie est consacrée au développement d’un modèle de spray par l’approche des grandes échelles (SGE), limité ici aux cas non évaporant. Il comprend la modélisation de sous-maille de la dispersion turbulente, des collisions-coalescence et des termes d’échange de quantité de mouvement de sous-maille. L'effet du choix du modèle de sous-maille pour la viscosité turbulente de sous-maille est montré, le choix retenu étant le modèle de Smagorinski dynamique. Afin d'améliorer la représentativité cruciale des conditions d’injections, un couplage faible est réalisé à partir de résultats de simulations existantes de l'écoulement interne aux buses. Les fonctions densité de probabilité simple et jointes extraits des résultats de simulations sont validés par rapport aux mesures PDA en situation pseudo-stationnaire et la pénétration liquide et la forme du spray est comparée aux visualisations par ombroscopie. Enfin, différentes zones caractéristiques sont identifiées et des longueurs sont notées pour les cas d'injection à 100 et 200bar. / Over the years numerical modelling and simulation techniques have constantly been improved with the increase in their use. While keeping the computational resources in mind, numerical simulations are usually adapted to the required degree of accuracy and quality of results. The conventional Reynolds Average Navier Stokes (RANS) is a robust, cheap but less accurate approach. Large Eddy Simulation (LES) provides very detailed and accurate results to the some of the most complex turbulence cases but at higher computational cost. On the other hand, Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS) is although the most accurate of the three approaches but at the same time it is computationally very expensive which makes it very difficult to be applied to the most of the complex industrial problems. The current work is aimed to develop a deeper understanding of multi-hole Gasoline Direct Injection (GDI) sprays which pose many complexities such as; air entrainment in the multi-hole spray cone, Jet-to-Jet interactions, and changes in the spray dynamics due to the internal flow of the injector. RANS approach is used to study multi-hole injector under cold, hot and superheated conditions. Whereas, LES is utilized to investigate the changes in the dynamics of the single spray plume due to the internal flow of the GDI injector. To reduce computational cost of the simulations, dynamic mesh refinement has been incorporated for both LES and RANS simulation. A thorough investigation of air entrainment in three and six hole GDI injectors has been carried out using RANS approach under non superheated and superheated conditions. The inter plume interactions caused by the air entrainment effects have been analysed and compared to the experimental results. Moreover, the tendencies of semi collapse and full collapse of multi-hole sprays under non superheated and superheated conditions have been investigated in detail as well. A methodology of LES has been established using different injection strategies along with various subgrid scale models for a single spray plume. In GDI multi-hole sprays, the internal flow of the injector plays a very crucial role in the outcome the spray plume. A separate already available internal flow LES simulation of the injector has been coupled with the external spray simulation in order to include the effect of nozzle geometry and the cavitation phenomenon which completely change the dynamics of the spray.