The purpose of this paper is to investigate the Kjeldahl method of nitrogen determination.

This thesis argues that Luther’s reaction to Pelagianism within the Scotist tradition led to a decisive break with the scholastic theology of free will, merit and the Mass. However, by identifying the theological crux of Luther’s Reformation, this thesis discovers a rapprochement in the free will theology of early Lutheranism and Counter-Reformation scholasticism. The case is made that Luther’s theology of the passivity of the human will calls for a recovery of the Reformation significance of Luther’s relation to scholasticism and provides the means for recovery in ecumenical dialogue today. The thesis is presented in three parts. The first locates the origins of Luther’s Reformation reaction to Pelagianism in the Scotist developments of free will, merit and the Mass from the thirteenth to the sixteenth centuries. Chapter One argues that Scotus’s view of free will as autonomous volition had Pelagian repercussions on his teaching on merit. Chapter Two finds that Luther’s charge of Pelagianism could similarly be applied to Scotus’s theology of Eucharistic sacrifice, because the human will rather than Christ’s cross is deemed by Scotus to be the source of merit in the Mass. Chapter Three examines the continued influence of Scotus’s free will theology on the fifteenth-century debates concerning predestination. Scotus’s free will legacy in these debates, gives historical justification for positing a connection between Scotus and Luther’s denunciation of the Mass as a Pelagian work. Part Two argues that Luther’s theology of the passivity of the human will and the Mass as a testament constitutes a Reformation break with scholastic understandings of the meritorious agency of the human will. Chapter Four locates Luther’s Reformation relation to the voluntarism of Ockham and Biel, the German mystical tradition, and his confessor Staupitz, in his denial that the human will attains a meritorious agency under grace. Chapter Five maintains that Luther’s theology of the Mass as a testament reflects his rejection of Pelagianism and his Reformation article of passivity. In consequence, Luther’s testament model is shown to be incompatible with Cajetan’s non-Pelagian theology of the merit of the sacrifice of the Mass. Part Three affirms that Luther’s belief in the passivity of the human will has Reformation significance, by examining the condemnations of Trent. However, by considering subsequent treatments on free will, it is possible to identify a convergence in late sixteenth-century Lutheran and Catholic theology. Chapter Six argues that Trent countered both the Scotist theory of merit and Luther’s theology of the passivity of the human will. Luther’s belief in passivity is shown to cause a Reformation rift in a way that the Scotist reformulation of free will does not, because it led Luther to renounce the meritorious offering of Masses. Chapter Seven shows that in the wake of the Majorist, Synergist and Flacian debates of early Lutheranism and the Catholic de auxiliis controversy, a parallel understanding of the free will to sin can be discerned. The Lutheran Formula of Concord (1577) relinquished Luther’s Reformation article of passivity and offered a position which was in unconscious agreement with Trent. The thesis concludes by applying the results of this historical study to key ecumenical documents on the Mass. It is suggested that the rediscovery of a historical consensus on free will, opens the door to a common understanding of merit as participation in Christ, and thus to a shared Lutheran and Catholic understanding of Eucharistic sacrifice.

This thesis seeks an answer to a question of whether social normative systems, particularly law and morality, are consistent with the most recent scientific and philosophical findings. Those in fact often conclude that the human will is not free and that the human decision- making is only a physiological process governed by the laws of physics. Such findings thus, at a first glance, collide mainly with the concept of responsibility, through which law and morality are implemented. Therefore, the paper begins with a brief introduction of the current state of knowledge concerning free will and presents mainly determinism and indeterminism. The conclusion of the first part called Free Will and Determinism introduces a view of the world, which best suits the current state of knowledge and is further referred to as Physicalism. The second part called Law, Morality, Physicalism, briefly presents law and morality as regulators of human behavior, for which the concept of free will is fundamental. The focus of the thesis then shifts towards the institutions of criminal and civil law, that seem to be threatened by Physicalism the most. However, general consistency of Physicalism and the examined normative concepts is concluded, while it is argued that within the physicalistic view of the world, law and morality...

The main subject of this thesis is feminine nature. The goal is to capture the essence of womanhood in the entirety of the world. There is a difference between the experience of a woman's life and the world around her. We must therefore ask how the world around us is set up, what nature itself entails, how the society views a woman and how a woman views herself. The work is divided into three main parts. The first part deals with the nature according to two of the most important thinkers of antiquity: Plato and Aristotle. The second section examines the nature and essence of womanhood as viewed by the French philosopher Simone de Beauvoir. In the final part, we discuss some of the phenomena related to the issue of womanhood nowadays, such as physicality, dignity, human culture and responsibility. The whole work shows that it is essential for us to demand freedom of self-realization which along with the need for cooperation of both genders in establishing basic rules of the world that men and women inhabit together, provides for women to self-realize freely in harmony with their own experience of the world. Keywords woman, nature, physis, freedom, the wholeness of the world, man's world, woman's world, transcendence

A notary in inheritance proceedings The aim of the study is to describe the activity of the notary as a court commissioner in inheritance proceedings and to compare Czech and Slovak legislation on this issue. In our legislation the inheritance proceeding is mandatory, as well as court commissariat, which means that when the court learns of the death of the person promptly starts the inheritance proceedings and instructs the court commissioner with the acts in proceedings. Court commissioner has de facto the control of the inheritance proceedings in his hands and with small exceptions he makes all acts in the proceeding. I chose this theme because I am interested in notary in general and court commissariat is one of the most important activities of the notary. This study is divided into three parts: 1.part- Notary in the inheritance proceedings in Czech Republic, 2. part- Notary in the inheritance proceedings in Slovak Republic, 3.part-final summary and the comparison. The parts are further divided into chapters and subchapters. I and II. part are structured similarly, but differ in scope. First part is more detailed and brings out also some problems, which are connected with this institution. In this part, I wrote also about some aspects of court commissariat in Austrian legislation to provide better...

- Legal actions Jakub Skřejpek Key words: Legal actions, manifestation of the will, interpretation Legal actions are generally classified as legal facts, which have effect on the creation, modification and termination of legal actions. Legal actions occur in the sphere of civil law. Legislation of legal actions is included in the current Civil Code, which also provides what conditions must be satisfied to make a legal act valid and vice versa, which is an invalid legal act, either absolutely or relatively. To be valid, a legal act must be a manifestation of the will, which is directed specifically to the creation, modification or termination of a legal relationship and the law must connect such a manifestation of the will with legal consequences. This legal specification is in the Civil Code. In the current draft of the new Civil Code, however, such a definition of legal actions is missing, and are specified only the consequences of legal actions. You can expand, that the validity of any legal action depends on the expression of the will of the acting person, which must be capable of acquiring rights and duties. The validity of the legal action is necessary for the expression of the will of the person to be free, serious, specific and comprehensive enough. It must not be done in distress or under...

- 1 - Testate succession - Summary The purpose of my diploma thesis is to analyse testamentary succession in Czech legal order according to the effective Civil Code (40/1964 Sb.) and the newly enacted New Civil Code (89/2012 Sb.), while performing their comparison and focuses on the implications for the recipients. The thesis is not limited to the succession title as a will but analyses other inheritance assumptions and some related legal institutes as well. The thesis is composed of four chapters, each of them dealing with different aspects of heirdom and acquisition of property by inheritance. Chapter One is introductory, common to both testamentary and intestate succession and it is subdivided into four parts. Part One takes acquaintance of the concept of Czech inheritance law, including its purpose, use of heirdom and basic terminology used in the thesis. Part two describes the sources and basic principles which the Czech inheritance law system consists in and Part Three deals with inheritance assumptions relevant to acquisition of heritance, especially heir capacity to inherit. Chapter Two consists of four parts, in a row dealing with intestate succession, testamentary succession, heritage contract and other testamentary dispositions and points circumstances of their application. Chapter Three focuses...

In this thesis I examine the evolving social and personal attitudes about marriage and love as depicted in George Eliot's Middlemarch by arguing that Eliot anticipates modern marriages by critiquing traditional Victorian marital values. For the purposes of this analysis, the applicable aspects of modern marriage are sexuality, shifting gender roles, and a dismissal of social class as the major factor in choosing a partner. In order to achieve this end, I apply close textual analysis as well as a New Historical approach to examine how Middlemarch is conditioned by its historical context.

A filosofia de Arthur Schopenhauer se caracteriza por um esforço contínuo de reflexão para decifrar um antigo enigma, qual seja, a analogia entre o homem e o universo ou entre o micro e o macrocosmo. Schopenhauer postulou o primado da vontade cega sobre o intelecto como o seu dogma fundamental, isto é, como a chave interpretativa que permite solucionar o problema em questão. O filósofo desenvolveu uma monumental metafísica, qualificada por ele de imanente, em cujas bases estão a sua complexa concepção de vontade e uma articulada compreensão da analogia como método de reflexão filosófica. Apesar de tal esforço, o próprio Schopenhauer explicitamente reconheceu que uma solução absoluta e exaustiva do problema seria uma doutrina da onisciência, algo realmente impossível para a razão humana, já que não há entendimento pleno e absoluto da essência e origem do mundo. Assim, o horizonte da experiência humana permanecerá sempre na mais profunda e completa obscuridade. A filosofia de Schopenhauer apresenta, portanto, uma tensão originária, a saber, a consciência de que conhecer o ser absoluto é tão impossível quanto é incansável a busca pela compreensão metafísica do mundo. O texto que se segue consiste, portanto, no esforço para resgatar algumas fontes históricas, observar o sentido e as referências originárias dos conceitos, para interpretar, no interior da dinâmica teórica da obra de Schopenhauer, o significado propriamente filosófico da analogia da vontade. A hipótese de orientação consistiu em supor que a obra do autor se caracteriza por uma peculiar articulação da reflexão metafísica com os conhecimentos produzidos pelas ciências biológicas, sobretudo, a partir do estudo da fisiologia dos impulsos orgânicos vitais e inconscientes, para, desse modo, elaborar uma imagem conceitual do mundo compreendido como um macroantropo, cuja significação moral mais profunda se traduz no sentimento universal do sofrimento e na negação da vontade de viver. Neste sentido, a vontade, segundo o próprio autor, constitui o último marco-limite do conhecimento possível e o mundo nada mais é do que o multifacetado reflexo físico de um mal metafísico que em si é imanente, uno e indivisível em cada ser. Foi necessária uma reconstrução introdutória do problema da analogia entre o micro e o macrocosmo, bem como a busca pelo significado originário do conceito de vontade que acompanha o seu desenvolvimento histórico para compreender a filosofia de Schopenhauer como a solução peculiar de um problema que lhe é próprio. O texto apresenta os valores que a analogia assume em cada etapa do pensamento schopenhaueriano, destacando uma tensão constitutiva entre as diferentes funções que ela desempenha. A interpretação que aqui se expõe, consistiu no esforço para compreender a pertinência genuinamente filosófica da analogia da vontade em alguns aspectos de sua complexidade intrínseca, incluindo as suas limitações e fragilidades sem, no entanto, ignorar o seu poder de alcance, a coerência própria e a sua singular capacidade explicativa. / The philosophy of Arthur Schopenhauer is characterized by the constant effort of reflection to decipher an old enigma, which is the analogy between the man and the universe or the micro and macrocosm. Schopenhauer postulated that the primacy of will blinds the intellect as its fundamental dogma, that is, as an interpretative key that enables to solve the problem focused. The philosopher developed a monumental metaphysics, qualified as immanent by him, whose bases are his complex concept of will and an articulated comprehension of analogy as a philosophical reflection method. Despite such effort, Schopenhauer himself has explicitly recognized that an absolute and exhaustive solution of the problem would be an omniscience doctrine, something really impossible to human reason, as there is no full and absolute understanding of the world\'s essence and origin. This way, the horizon of human experience will always remain in the most deep and complete obscurity. The philosophy of Schopenhauer presents, though, a primary tension, namely: the consciousness of knowing the absolute individual is as impossible as the tireless search for the world\'s metaphysics comprehension. Therefore, the following text consists of the effort to rescue some historical sources, observe the sense and the original references of concepts, to interpret, from the inside of the theoretical dynamics of Schopenhauer\'s work, the proper philosophical meaning of the analogy of will. The guidance hypothesis constitutes of supposing that the author\'s work is characterized by a particular articulation of metaphysical reflection with the concepts produced by the biological sciences, mainly from the physiology study of vital and organic impulses, in order to create a conceptual image of the world seen as a macranthropos, whose most profound moral significance is translated to the universal suffering and the denial of the Will to life. In this sense, the will, according to the author, constitutes the last boundary of possible knowledge and the world is nothing more than a multifaceted physical reflection of a metaphysical evil which is immanent in itself, unified and inseparable to each individual. It was necessary an introductory reconstitution of the analogy problem between micro and macrocosm, as well as the search for the original meaning of the concept of will that follows its historical development to understand Schopenhauer\' philosophy as a peculiar solution to its own problem. The text presents the values assumed by the analogy in each step of schopenhauerian thought, highlighting the constitutive tension between the functions that it develops. This present interpretation constitutes of the effort to comprehend the genuinely philosophical pertinence of the analogy of will in some aspects of its intrinsic complexity, including its limitations and fragilities without ignoring its reach power, own coherence and singular explanatory capacity.

Caritas e cupiditas constituem noções privilegiadas para investigar o livro VIII das Confissões porquanto permitem articular relatos de conversão e reflexão acerca da vontade humana, além de exibirem o caráter processual da conversão. Situada no interior de um encadeamento, a conversão depende do relato e o engendra, conforme exigência da caritas que a impele para além do ato singular. Os relatos de conversão abarcam tanto a crítica da cupiditas como a exigência do restabelecimento da caritas. Ademais, subjacente ao nosso binômio, a noção de ordem possibilita caracterizar os momentos anterior e posterior à conversão como ruptura e reparo do amor ordenado, respectivamente. Por um lado, trata-se de analisar as consequências da vontade exercida como cupiditas, verificadas, sobretudo, na cisão volitiva; por outro lado, significa identificar na caritas o exercício da vontade enquanto amor ordenado que repara a cisão da vontade. / Caritas and cupiditas are privileged notions to research into Book VIII of the Confessions because they allow to articulate conversion accounts and reflection on the human will, as well as showing the procedural nature of the conversion. Placed within a chain, the conversion depends on the account and engenders it, as demanded by the caritas that impels it beyond the singular act. The conversion accounts cover both the criticism of cupiditas and the demand for the reestablishment of caritas. In addition, underlying our binomial, the notion of order makes it possible to characterize the moments before and after conversion as a rupture and repair of ordered love, respectively. On the one hand, it is a question of analyzing the consequences of the will exercised as cupiditas, verified, above all, in the volitional split; On the other hand, it means identifying in caritas the exercise of the will as ordered love that repairs the split of the will.