The bollworm, Helicoverpa zea (Boddie), is an economically important pest of cotton and is becoming more difficult to control in the United States. This project was designed to develop a better understanding of the effects of resistance development and plant structures on the efficacy of Bt cotton and foliar insecticides. Experiments examined larval behavior and damage in current cotton varieties expressing proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis. Other experiments examined the effects of floral structures on the control of bollworm using foliar insecticides. Results suggest that larval feeding and avoidance behavior is dependent on point of eclosion. Fruiting form damage increased in two-gene cotton compared to earlier research but was low in cotton expressing the Vip3A protein. Increases in damage can lead to more frequent applications of foliar insecticides. Floral structures can hinder insecticide efficacy by reducing exposure. Results from these experiments will be important for refining management recommendations for bollworm in Bt cotton.

No description available.

This study projects the economic impact of adoption of Bt eggplant in India, Bangladesh and Philippines. The welfare benefits from adoption of Bt eggplant are projected to be positive in all three countries. The welfare gains from adoption (discounted at 5 percent) are projected to be US $ 411 million for India, US $ 37 million for Bangladesh and US$ 28 million for the Philippines. Consumers gain about 57% of the welfare benefits, while the producers gain 43% of the total surplus. Simulation results indicate that India is in a position to make significant investments in the development and diffusion of the Bt eggplant technology, while the Philippines and Bangladesh are likely to benefit from the transfer and adoption of technology from India.The simulations assumed a low seed premium, which would help in increasing the rate of adoption of the technology by the farmers. The findings suggest that potential economic benefits from Bt eggplant are high and efforts should be continued to develop and integrate the Bt eggplant with other IPM practices for effective pest management. / Master of Science

A estratégia de pirâmide de genes tem sido explorada para retardar a evolução da resistência de insetos a plantas geneticamente modificadas que expressam proteínas inseticidas de Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner (Bt). No Brasil, às tecnologias de milho YieldGard VT PRO™ (VT PRO) e PowerCore™ (PW) que expressam as proteínas Cry1A.105/Cry2Ab2 e Cry1A.105/Cry2Ab2/Cry1F, respectivamente, foram liberadas para uso comercial em 2009. Para subsidiar programas de Manejo da Resistência de Insetos (MRI) foram conduzidos trabalhos para avaliar o risco de evolução da resistência de Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith) ao milho VT PRO e PW. Inicialmente foram realizados estudos para avaliar a atividade biológica de proteínas Bt expressas em diferentes estruturas da planta de milho VT PRO e PW sobre S. frugiperda e monitorar a suscetibilidade a Cry1A.105 e Cry2Ab2 em populações da praga coletadas em diferentes regiões geográficas do Brasil durante as safras de 2011 a 2014. Houve 100% de mortalidade de neonatas de S. frugiperda quando expostas ao tecido foliar de milho VT PRO e PW. No entanto, em estilo-estigmas e grãos, a mortalidade foi inferior a 50 e 6% respectivamente. Variabilidade geográfica na suscetibilidade de populações S. frugiperda a Cry1A.105 e Cry2Ab2 foi detectada, com reduções significativas na suscetibilidade a essas proteínas para algumas populações de 2011 a 2014. A técnica de \"F2 screen\" foi utilizada para a caracterização da resistência de S. frugiperda ao milho VT PRO e PW a partir de populações coletadas na safra de 2012. Verificou-se uma alta variabilidade na frequência fenotípica de isofamílias resistentes ao milho VT PRO e PW, sendo que as maiores frequências foram observadas em populações coletadas na região Central do Brasil. Com a técnica de \"F2 screen\" foi possível selecionar linhagens resistentes ao milho VT PRO e PW, denominadas de RR-2 e RR-3 respectivamente. Tanto a linhagem RR-2 quanto a RR-3 que foram criadas por 18 gerações consecutivas nos respectivos eventos de milho Bt apresentaram razões de resistência superiores a 3300, 2700 e ≈ 10 vezes a Cry1A.105, Cry1F e Cry2Ab2, respectivamente. Cruzamentos recíprocos das linhagens RR-2 e RR-3 com uma linhagem suscetível de referência revelaram que o padrão da herança da resistência é autossômica recessiva. A recessividade genética da resistência também foi confirmada pela mortalidade completa de indivíduos heterozigotos (descendentes provenientes de cruzamentos entre as linhagens RR-2 ou RR-3 com a linhagem suscetível) em tecidos de milho VT PRO e PW, demonstrando que esses eventos atendem ao conceito de alta dose para o MRI. Em retrocruzamentos da progênie F1 dos cruzamentos recíprocos com as linhagens resistentes confirmou-se a hipótese de que a resistência é poligênica. A presença de custo adaptativo associado à resistência foi verificada para as linhagens RR-2 e RR-3, porém ausente para os indivíduos heterozigotos, baseado nos parâmetros biológicos avaliados. Neste estudo fornecemos a primeira evidência do potencial de evolução da resistência de S. frugiperda a eventos de milho Bt piramidados e informações para o refinamento das estratégias de MRI para preservar a vida útil das tecnologias de milho Bt para o controle de S. frugiperda no Brasil. / The strategy of pyramid of genes has been exploited to delay the evolution of insect resistance to genetically modified crops expressing insecticidal proteins from from Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner (Bt). In Brazil, YieldGard VT Pro™ (VT PRO) and PowerCore™ (PW) corn technologies expressing Cry1A.105/Cry2Ab2 and Cry1A.105/Cry2Ab2/Cry1F proteins respectively were released for commercial use in 2009. Resistance risk assessment were conducted to support an Insect Resistance Management (IRM) program of Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) to VT PRO and PW corn. Initially, studies were conducted to evaluate the biological activity of Bt proteins expressed in different plant structures of VT PRO and PW corn on S. frugiperda and to monitor the susceptibility to Cry1A.105 and Cry2Ab2 in pest populations collected from different geographical regions in Brazil from 2011 to 2014 growing seasons. The mortality of neonate larvae of S. frugiperda was 100% when fed on leaf tissue of VT PRO and PW corn. However, the larval mortality when fed on silks and grains was less than 50 and 6% respectively. A geographical variation in the susceptibility of S. frugiperda to Cry1A.105 and Cry2Ab2 proteins was detected among populations, with significant reduction in susceptibility to these proteins in some populations from 2011 to 2014. The F2 screen technique was used to characterize the resistance of S. frugiperda to VT PRO and PW corn from populations sampled in 2012 growing season. High variability in the frequency of resistant phenotypic isofamilies to VT PRO and PW corn was obtained with higher frequencies in S. frugiperda populations from Midwestern region of Brazil. Resistant populations to VT PRO and PW corn were selected by using F2 screen which were designated as RR-2 and RR-3 strains respectively. Both RR-2 and RR-3 strains reared on respective Bt maize events for 18 consecutive generations showed resistance ratios greater than 3,300; 2,700 and ≈ 10-fold to Cry1A.105, Cry1F and Cry2Ab2 respectively. Reciprocal crosses of RR-2 and RR-3 strains with a susceptible reference strain revealed that the inheritance of resistance is autosomal recessive. The genetic recessiveness of the resistance was also confirmed by the complete mortality of heterozygous individuals (offspring from the crosses between RR-2 or RR-3 strains with susceptible strain) on VT PRO and PW corn leaf tissues, indicating that these events meet the concept of high-dose for IRM strategies. Backcrosses of F1 progenies with both resistant strains revealed that resistance is polygenic. Fitness costs associated with resistance were found in RR-2 e RR-3 strains but not in heterozygous individuals, based on life history traits. In this study, we reported the first evidence of the potential of S. frugiperda to evolve resistance to pyramided Bt corn events, as well as provide valuable information to support the current IRM strategies to preserve the useful life of Bt corn technologies for S. frugiperda control in Brazil.

O uso de culturas GM (geneticamente modificadas) tem sido questionado quanto ao destino dos produtos derivados da transgenia no ambiente. Com a liberação de exsudatos das raízes das plantas e a decomposição dos resíduos culturais, aumenta-se a quantidade de DNA transgênico no ambiente, que pode ser adsorvido à superfície ativa das partículas do solo e/ou degradado pela ação de enzimas microbianas. A comunidade microbiana do solo pode entrar em contato direto com estes produtos, aumentando a probabilidade de transferência horizontal de fragmentos de DNA transgênico para os microrganismos. Também, alterações na composição dos exsudatos das plantas GM e mudanças em função das práticas de manejo, podem resultar em alterações na composição funcional e estrutural da comunidade microbiana. Assim, faz-se necessário avaliar a persistência dos produtos derivados da transgenia no solo e seus possíveis efeitos sobre a comunidade microbiana. Os objetivos deste estudo foram: avaliar a persistência dos fragmentos 35S-hsp70, hsp70-cry1Ab e cry1Ab-planta da construção gênica do milho Bt (evento MON810) em diferentes tipos de solo e temperaturas, em condições de microcosmo e de campo; e determinar a abundância do número de cópias dos gene 16S rRNA de Bacteria, Firmicutes, Verrucomicrobria e Archaea, e 18S rRNA de Fungo nas mesmas condições, e avaliar a estrutura da comunidade bacteriana em áreas agrícolas de cultivo de milho Bt. No primeiro estudo, o DNA do milho Bt MON810 foi adicionado em solos arenoso e argiloso. Como controle negativo, apenas água estéril foi misturada ao solo. Amostras de solo foram incubadas a 15 e 25ºC. Em campo, os solos foram amostrados em três áreas agrícolas em Fátima do Sul, MS, em dois anos consecutivos. Após extração de DNA, os fragmentos foram quantificados por qPCR. No segundo estudo, foram determinadas a abundância dos genes 16S rRNA de Bacteria, Firmicutes, Verrucomicrobria e Archaea e 18S rRNA de Fungo e avaliada a estrutura da comunidade bacteriana por T-RLFP. Os resultados mostraram que em condições de microcosmo, os fragmentos hsp70-cry1Ab e cry1Ab-planta persistiram até 291 dias, e o fragmento 35S-hsp70 até 180 dias. A temperatura e o tipo de solo não afetaram a persistência dos fragmentos. Em campo, o número de cópias desses fragmentos foi maior na segunda coleta. No segundo estudo, o número de cópias do gene 16S rRNA de Bacteria aumentou com adição de DNA do milho Bt nos microcosmos, e uma redução do número de cópias foi verificada para Archaea, Verrucomicrobia e Fungo. Para Firmicutes, os resultados não foram consistentes. As temperaturas não resultaram em efeito na abundância dos genes, enquanto o tipo de solo teve efeito apenas para Archaea e Verrucomicrobia. Áreas agrícolas com cinco anos de cultivo de milho Bt apresentaram variações na estrutura da comunidade bacteriana em nível de filo, e maior abundância de Fungos no segundo ano de amostragem, enquanto em área com um ano de cultivo, observouse uma redução da população de Firmicutes e Verrucomicrobia. Os maiores efeitos na comunidade microbiana foram verificados entre os anos de amostragem / The use of GM (genetically modified) crops has been questioned about the fate of transgenes is derived products on the environment. With the release of exudates from roots of GM plants and the decomposition of its residues, the amount of transgenic DNA in the environment increases, which can be adsorbed to the active surface of soil particles and/or be degraded by the action of microbial enzymes. Soil microbial communities can come into direct contact with these products, raising the probability of horizontal transfer of transgenic DNA fragments to soil microorganisms. Moreover, changes in exudates composition of GM plants and changes depending on the management practices may result in structural and functional alterations in the microbial community. Thus, it is necessary to evaluate the persistence of transgenes is derivatives in the soil and effects on microbial community. The objectives of this study were to assess the persistence of fragments 35S-hsp70, hsp70-cry1Ab and cry1Abplant from the genetic construct of Bt corn (event MON810) in different soil types and temperatures, in microcosm and field conditions; and to determine the abundance of 16S rRNA copy number of Bacteria, Firmicutes, Verrucomicrobria and Archaea and 18S rRNA of Fungi under the same conditions, and to evaluate the structure of bacterial communities in agricultural areas of Bt corn cultivation. In the first study, DNA from Bt corn MON810 was added to sandy and clay soils. As negative control, only sterile water was mixed with soil. Soil samples were incubated at 15 and 25°C. At the field, soils were sampled in three agricultural areas in Fátima do Sul, MS, in two consecutive years. After DNA extraction, fragments were quantified by qPCR. In the second study, the abundance of 16S rRNA of Bacteria, Firmicutes, Verrucomicrobria and Archaea and 18S rRNA of Fungi were determined and the structure of bacterial communities was evaluated by T-RFLP. The results showed that in microcosm conditions, hsp70-cry1Ab and cry1Ab-plants fragments persisted until 291 days and the 35S-hsp70 up to 180 days. The temperature and the type of soil did not affect the persistence of fragments. In field, the copy number of these fragments was greater in the second sampling. In the second study, the copy number of 16S rRNA of Bacteria increased with the addition of DNA from Bt corn in microcosm, and a reduction in copy number was observed for Archaea, Verrucomicrobia and Fungi. The results were not consistent for Firmicutes. Temperatures resulted in no effect in gene abundance, while the soil was effective only for Archaea and Verrucomicrobia. Agricultural areas with five years of Bt corn cultivation showed variations in bacterial community structure at the phylum level, and greater abundance of fungi in the second year of sampling, while in the area with a year of cultivation, a reduction in population of Firmicutes and Verrucomicrobia was observed. The largest effects on the microbial community were observed between the sampled years

Submitted by JOSIANE SANTOS DE OLIVEIRA (josianeso) on 2017-12-13T15:30:36Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Silvia Martins de Salles_.pdf: 1554119 bytes, checksum: 531304cc1d1683afbc987722d8e71530 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-12-13T15:30:36Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Silvia Martins de Salles_.pdf: 1554119 bytes, checksum: 531304cc1d1683afbc987722d8e71530 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-07-31 / CAPES - Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / O desenvolvimento da resistência representa uma ameaça ao controle de pragas com a utilização de plantas Bt. A conservação de inimigos naturais pode contribuir para reduzir a evolução da resistência à soja Bt, e entre os insetos de interesse para uso no controle de espécies do gênero Spodoptera, os parasitoides têm sido considerados os mais importantes devido à sua eficiência e à sua especificidade em relação ao hospedeiro. Nessa perspectiva, este estudo teve como objetivo avaliar as interações de Spodoptera eridania (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) e o endoparasitoide Dolichozele sp. (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), quando tratados com a soja Bt que sintetiza a proteína Cry1Ac. Para tanto, lagartas de S. eridania foram expostas aos seguintes tratamentos: (T1) não parasitadas e alimentadas com soja convencional, (T2) não parasitadas e alimentadas com soja Bt, (T3) parasitadas e alimentadas com soja convencional, (T4) parasitadas e alimentadas com soja Bt, e (T5) parasitadas e alimentadas com soja transgênica BRR. A biologia dos parasitoides descendentes de lagartas alimentadas com soja Bt foi avaliada através da observação da data de formação do casulo do parasitoide, a data de emergência, o sexo, a longevidade do parasitoide adulto e a sobrevivência. Na avaliação de preferência do parasitoide por lagartas alimentadas com soja Bt e soja não Bt, as lagartas receberam tempos de exposição diferentes à fêmea do parasitoide – a saber, 2h, 4h e 6h. Nos tratamentos com Dolichozele sp. isolados ou em conjunto com soja Bt, a mortalidade foi significativamente maior que o tratamento-controle (F= 63,5; gl= 4,14; p=0,001), apresentando mortalidade média de lagartas de 17,0 (T3), 20,2 (T4) e 17,5 (T5). Através dos ensaios imunoenzimáticos (ELISA), foi possível detectar a presença da proteína Cry1Ac em folhas de soja Bt, fezes de S. eridania e em larvas de Dolichozele sp. Os parasitoides emergidos de lagartas alimentadas com soja Bt e soja RR evidenciaram diferenças significativas na fase de pupa (F= 15,058; gl=2; P=0,001) nos tratamentos T4 (16,6 dias) e T5 (17,08 dias), quando comparados com o controle, T3 (18,2 dias). Parasitoides submetidos ao T4 (lagartas alimentadas com soja Bt) apresentaram menor sobrevivência em relação aos outros tratamentos (Kaplan–Meier, Log Rank, X2 =8,22, gl=2, p = 0,016; Breslow, X2 =9,58, gl=2, P = 0,008; Tarone-Ware, X2 =9,94, gl=2, p = 0,007). Observou-se correlação positiva entre o tempo de exposição e a taxa de parasitismo de Dolichozele sp. em S. eridania (Rho de Spearman = 0,758, p=0,001). Portanto, os resultados deste estudo indicam que o parasitoide tem efeito positivo no controle de S. eridania, entretanto seu desenvolvimento e sua sobrevivência podem se influenciar pela presença da toxina Bt. Dolichozele sp. revelou potencial para agir de forma eficiente em estratégias de manejo da evolução da resistência às proteínas Cry em soja Bt, pois podem ajudar a suprimir as populações de pragas alvo e não alvo. / The development of insect resistance poses a threat to pest control using Bt plants. The conservation of natural enemies may contribute to reduce the evolution of Bt soybean resistance. Among the insects of interest for use in the control of species of the genus Spodoptera, parasitoids have been considered the most important due to their efficiency and specificity in relation to the host. In this way, this study aimed to evaluate the interactions of Spodoptera eridania (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) and the endoparasitoid Dolichozele sp. (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) when treated with Bt soybean that synthesizes Cry1Ac protein. For this purpose, S. eridania larvae were exposed to the following treatments: (T1) non-parasitized and fed with conventional soybean; (T2) non-parasitized and fed with Bt soybean; (T3) parasitized and fed with conventional soybean; (T4) parasitized and fed with Bt soybean; and (T5) parasitized and fed with transgenic BRR soybean. The biology of the parasitoids descendant from larvae fed with Bt soybean was evaluated by observing the date of formation of the parasitoid pupa, date of emergence, sex, adult parasitoid longevity and survival. In the evaluation of the parasitoid preference for larvae fed with Bt soybean and non-Bt soybean, larvae received different exposure times to the parasitoid female, of 2h, 4h and 6h. In the treatments using Dolichozele sp. isolated or in conjunction with Bt soybean, mortality was significantly higher than the control treatment (F = 63.5; gl = 4.14; P = 0.001), with a mean larval mortality of 17.0 (T3), 20.2 (T4) and 17.5 (T5). Through the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), it was possible to detect the transfer of the Cry1Ac protein in S. eridania and Dolichozele sp.). The parasitoids emerged from larvae fed Bt soybean showed significant difference in the pupal phase (F = 15.058, gl = 2, P = 0.001) in the treatments T4 (16.6 days) and T5 (17.08 days) when compared as control T3 (18.2 days). The survival of the parasitoids that emerged from larvae fed with Bt soybean (T4) was lower (Kaplan-Meier, Log Rank, X2 = 8.22, gl = 2, p = 0.016, Breslow, X2 = 9.58, gl = 2, p = 0.008; Tarone-Ware, X2 = 9.94, gl = 2, p = 0.007). There was a positive correlation between the exposure time and the parasitism rate of Dolichozele sp. in S. eridania (Spearman's Rho = 0.758, p = 0.001). The results of this study indicate that the parasitoid has a positive effect on the control of S. eridania, however its development and survival may be influenced by the presence of the Bt toxin. Dolichozele sp. presented the potential to act positively in strategies to manage the evolution of resistance to Cry proteins in Bt soybeans, as they may help suppress pest populations.

A evolução da resistência de insetos a culturas que expressam proteínas derivadas de Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) é o maior desafio para a manutenção dessa biotecnologia em programas de manejo integrado de pragas. Diante do risco de evolução de resistência de Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) à soja MON87701 × MON89788 foi realizada uma análise de risco levando em consideração o conjunto de fatores que influenciam no processo de seleção. Portanto, os objetivos do presente estudo foram a de caracterizar a suscetibidade à proteína Cry1Ac em populações de H. armigera e H. zea, caracterizar a eficácia da soja MON87701 × MON89788, bem como a adequação do produto ao conceito de alta dose para H. armigera e H. zea, avaliar a frequência dos alelos que conferem resistência à proteína Cry1Ac em populações de H. armigera, identificar a preferência hospedeira de H. armigera e H. zea em diferentes culturas e paisagens agrícolas e avaliar os parâmetros biológicos e demográficos de H. armigera e H. zea em diferentes hospedeiros. A espécie H. zea foi aproximadamente 60 vezes mais tolerante à proteína Cry1Ac que H. armigera. Além disso, baixa variabilidade na suscetibilidade à Cry1Ac foi verificada em populações de H. armigera coletadas em diferentes regiões do Brasil, o que pode ser explicada pela recente introdução dessa espécie no continente americano. A soja MON87701 × MON89788 resultou em mortalidade completa de H. armigera durante todo o ciclo da cultura, enquanto que para H. zea não foi verificado 100% de mortalidade sob condições de laboratório em bioensaios de cinco dias de duração, apesar dos altos níveis de mortalidade encontrados. Uma baixa frequência (frequência estimada = 0,0011) de alelos que conferem resistência à soja MON87701 × MON89788 em populações de campo de H. armigera foi estimada pelo método de F2 screen. A avaliação da tabela de vida em laboratório demonstrou que H. armigera tem altos níveis de desenvolvimento e a reprodução nas principais culturas das regiões dos Cerrados, sendo a cultura do algodão a que resulta nos maiores valores de crescimento populacional e menor tempo entre gerações. Por outro lado, H. zea se mostrou menos polífaga, se estabelecendo até a fase adulta e gerando descendentes apenas em milho e milheto. A ocorrência das duas espécies no campo corrobora com as informações encontradas na tabela de vida, na qual H. armigera foi encontrada em grande parte as culturas da soja e algodão, e em menor frequência à cultura do milho, enquanto que H. zea apresentou comportamento funcionalmente monófago no campo, associada apenas à cultura do milho. Os parâmetros toxicológicos da soja MON87701 × MON89788 associada à alta suscetibilidade de H. armigera à proteína Cry1Ac e à baixa frequência inicial de alelos que conferem resistência se adéquam aos preceitos da estratégia de alta dose/refúgio. A manutenção das áreas de refúgio com plantas não-Bt, de acordo com as recomendações, é essencial para retardar o processo de seleção de resistência de populações de H. armigera à soja MON87701 × MON89788 no Brasil. / Insect resistance to crops expressing proteins derived from Bacillus thuringiensis proteins (Bt) impose the biggest challenge to maintaining the value of this biotechnology in integrated pest management programs. To support a resistance to Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) to soybean MON87701 × MON89788 was carried out a risk analysis taking into account all factors that influence the selection process. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to characterize the suscetibidade the Cry1Ac protein in H. armigera populations and H. zea, characterize the effectiveness of soybean MON 87701 × MON 89788, as well as the suitability of the product to the concept of high dose H. armigera and H. zea, evaluate the frequency of alleles that confer resistance to Cry1Ac protein in H. armigera populations from different regions of agricultural production, understand the host preference of H. armigera and H. zea in different crops in and agricultural landscapes and evaluate the biological and demographic parameters of H. armigera and H. zea on different hosts. The species H. zea was approximately 60 times more tolerant to Cry1Ac protein than H. armigera. Low variability on susceptibility to Cry1Ac was found among field H. armigera populations, what can be explained by the recent introduction of this species into America. MON 87701 × MON 89788 soybean resulted in complete mortality of H. armigera throughout the crop cycle, while incomplete mortality was found for H. zea using leaf disc bioassays, although high levels of mortality were found. A low resistance allele frequency (estimated frequency = 0.0011) to MON 87701 × MON 89788 soybean was estimated by using the F2 screen methodology. The assessment of the Life Table parameters in laboratory demonstrated the main row crops such as cotton, soybean and maize are suitable for the development and reproduction of H. armigera, wherein cotton resulted in higher values of population growth parameter and shorter times between generations. Conversely, H. zea was less polyphagous in which only corn and millet were suitable hosts. Field occurrence of both species was consistent with laboratory studies. H. amigera was mostly found in soybean and cotton, and rarely on corn, while H. zea was found mainly on maize. Overall, toxicological aspects of MON87701 × MON89788 soybean associated with high susceptibility of H. armigera to Cry1Ac protein and low initial resistance allele frequency fit properly to the highdose/ refuge strategy to delay resistance evolution. Therefore, maintenance of compliance with the refuge recommendation is essential to delay the evolution of resistance in H. armigera to MON87701 × MON89788 soybean in Brazil.

<p>BACKGROUND: Project based structures has become more and more common in the organizations of today. As the project based structures are given a more central role in the organizations the interdependencies between the projects are getting more attention. These structures need a new type of control to meet the unique challenges that arise. The research</p><p>that has been done has been concentrated around the project form and the projects internal control, the area of multi-project management is therefore relatively unexplored. The few existing studies on the subject focus on projects in the construction industry why research in</p><p>more complex fields of business have been requested.</p><p>PURPOSE: The purpose of this thesis is to explore and analyze how knowledge intense multi-project organizations manage their project activities, and to determine how different organizational characteristics affect the need for management control systems.</p><p>METHODOLOGY: The empirical data has been collected through interviews with personnel in BT Products R&D, Gambro R&D and AstraZeneca Development. These organizations are all mature and project intense.</p><p>CONCLUSION: With an organization´s line of business follows a certain level of uncertainty and interdependencies between projects. Another important factor is the organization´s level of internal and external differentiation. These three factors together describe the characteristics of an organization, which forms the organization´s starting position. To handle the uncertainty of unpredicted events the organizations’ reflexes has to be quick enough; this is made possible through a project oriented organizational structure where the project managers have more authority than the function manager. Interdependencies between projects is handled through coordination, the level of coordination needed is dependent on the degree of interdependencies. Last but not least the organization has to handle the complexity that comes with the degree of internal and external differentiation. This is managed through the integration and extent of the management control systems. In the analysis chapter a model is presented that describes the relationship between the organization characteristics and management control systems.</p> / <p>BAKGRUND: I dagens organisationer är det allt vanligare att verksamheten bedrivs i projektform. När företag allt mer började ta till sig projektbaserade strukturer kom relationen mellan projekt i fokus. Denna arbetsform kräver en ny typ av styrning, detta för att hantera de beroenden som finns mellan projekten samt för att möta de samordningsproblem som kan uppstå. De senaste åren har projektstyrning blivit ett allt vanligare forskningsområde, multiprojektstyrning finns det dock inte mycket information om. Den forskning som väl genomförts har inriktats mot byggsektorn varför forskning på komplexare områden eftertysts.</p><p>SYFTE: Syftet med uppsatsen är att undersöka och analysera hur kunskapsintensiva multiprojektorganisationer hanterar sin projektverksamhet, samt att utröna hur olika organisationers egenskaper påverkar behovet av styrsystem.</p><p>GENOMFÖRANDE: Det empiriska materialet har samlats in genom intervjuer på BT Products R&D, Gambro R&D och AstraZeneca Development R&D. Samtliga organisationer är mogna och har en arbetsgång som baseras på projekt.</p><p>RESULTAT: Ett företags verksamhetsområde medför en viss grad av osäkerhet i den praktiska verksamheten, ytterligare en annan verksamhetsspecifik faktor är beroendegrad mellan projekt. Vidare är ett viktigt karaktärsdrag hos organisationer graden av differentiering. Dessa tre faktorer beskriver organisationens karaktäristika, med andra ord vilket utgångsläge organisationen har i sitt arbete. För att kunna hantera osäkerhet krävs att organisationen har tillräckligt bra reflexer för att möta oförutsedda händelser, detta löses genom att ge projekten mer auktoritet jämfört med funktionen. För att hantera beroenden krävs att verksamheten koordineras, vilken grad av koordinering som krävs beror på vilken grad av beroenden som finns representerat. Slutligen måste den komplexitet som differentiering ger hanteras, detta sker genom integrationen och omfattningen av styrsystemen. I uppsatsen presenteras avslutningsvis en modell som beskriver relationen mellan organisationen och dess styrning.</p>

In den letzten 20 Jahren hat sich der Maiszünsler (<i>Ostrinia nubilalis HÜBNER</i>), aus der Schmetterlingsfamilie der Pyralidae oder Zünsler, zum bedeutendsten tierischen Schädling des Maises (<i>Zea mays</i>) entwickelt. Eine Möglichkeit den Befall des Maiszünslers abzuwenden, bietet der Anbau von <i>Bacillus thuringiensis</i>-Mais (Bt-Mais). Mit Hilfe der Gentechnik wurden Gene des Bakteriums <i>Bacillus thuringiensis</i> übertragen, die einen für Fraßinsekten giftigen Wirkstoff bilden, wodurch die Pflanzen während der kompletten Vegetation vor den Larven des Maiszünslers geschützt sind.<br><br> Ziel des vorliegenden Projektes war es, in einer 3-jährigen Studie die Auswirkungen des großflächigen Anbaus von Bt-Mais auf die ökologische Situation und den Handlungsrahmen des integrierten Pflanzenschutzes komplex zu untersuchen. Dazu wurden in Betrieben im Oderbruch, das als permanentes Befallsgebiet des Maiszünslers gilt, in den Jahren 2002 bis 2004 jährlich zwei Felder mit jeweils einer Bt-Sorte und einer konventionellen Sorte angelegt. Zusätzlich wurden biologische und chemische Maiszünsler-Bekämpfungsvarianten geprüft.<br><br> Durch verschiedene Methoden wie Bonituren, Ganzpflanzenernten, Bodenfallenfänge und Beobachtungen des Wahlverhaltens von (Flug-)insekten konnten Aussagen zum Vorkommen von Insekten und Spinnentieren getroffen werden, wobei hierfür Daten aus Untersuchungen der Jahre 2000 und 2001 im Oderbruch ergänzend herangezogen werden konnten. Durch Ertragsmessungen, Energie- und Qualitätsermittlungen, sowie Fusarium- und Mykotoxinanalysen konnte der Anbau von Bt-Mais als neue Alternative zur Bekämpfung des Maiszünslers bewertet werden.<br><br> Bezüglich des Auftretens von Insekten und Spinnentieren wurden im Mittel der fünfjährigen Datenerhebung beim Vergleich der Bt-Sorte zur konventionellen Sorte, mit Ausnahme der fast 100 %igen Bekämpfung des Maiszünslers, keine signifikanten Unterschiede festgestellt. Hierfür wurde ein besonderes Augenmerk auf Thripse, Wanzen, Blattläuse und deren Fraßfeinde, sowie mittels Bodenfallenfängen auf Laufkäfer und Spinnen gerichtet.<br><br> Die erwarteten ökonomischen Vorteile wie etwa Ertragsplus oder bessere Nährstoff- und Energiegehalte durch geringeren Schaden beim Anbau von Bt-Mais als Silomais blieben in den Untersuchungsjahren aus. Allerdings zeigten Fusarium- und Mykotoxinanalysen eine geringere Belastung des Bt-Maises, was möglicherweise auf den geringeren Schaden zurückzuführen ist, da beschädigte Pflanzen für Fusarium und Mykotoxine anfälliger sind.<br><br> Desweiteren konnten erste methodische Ansätze für ein auf EU-Ebene gefordertes, den Anbau von Bt-Mais begleitendes Monitoring, erarbeitet werden. So konnten Vorschläge für geeignete Methoden, deren Umfang sowie des Zeitpunktes der Durchführungen gemacht werden. / In the last 20 years the European corn borer (<i>Ostrinia nubilalis</i>, <i>Pyralidae</i>) has become the most important pest in maize (<i>Zea mays</i>). One of a couple of possibilities to reduce the infestation by the European corn borer is the cultivation of <i>Bacillus thuringiensis</i> maize (Bt maize). Genetic engineering transmitted genes from <i>Bacillus thuringiensis</i>, which produce a substance that is toxic to feeding insects and thus protect plants against the larvae of the European corn borer during the whole vegetation.<br><br> The present project is a 3-year study to identify the effects of Bt maize growing on the ecological situation and the possibilities of integrated plant protection. From 2002 to 2004, two fields in the Oderbruch region, where Ostrinia nubilalis occurs, were each planted with Bt maize and a conventional maize variety every year. Furthermore, a biological and a chemical strategy against the European corn borer were verified.<br><br> Different methods like counts, harvest of whole plants, pitfall traps and observation the landing behaviour of flying insects were used to determine the abundance of insects and spiders. Furthermore, we could use additional data from studies obtained in the Oderbruch region in 2000 and 2001. The determination of yield, quality and energy content of the crops as well as of the degree of Fusarium infection and contamination by mycotoxins led to the conclusion that the cultivation of Bt maize is a new alternative strategy to control the European corn borer.<br><br> The average occurrence of insects and spiders did not differ significantly between Bt maize and the conventional variety in the 5 years of data recording. The only exception is the almost total control of the European corn borer. Attention was especially paid to thrips, bugs, aphids and their feeding enemies and using ground traps to ground beetles and spiders.<br><br> The expected economic benefits like increased yield or nutrient and energy content of the crop as a result of a minimized damage to silage Bt maize were not achieved in the years under investigation. However, the analysis of Fusarium and mycotoxins indicated a lower exposure of Bt maize, which may result from a lower damage caused by Ostrinia nubilalis, and damaged plants are more susceptible to Fusarium and mycotoxins.<br><br> Furthermore, we developed a first methodological approach for the monitoring procedure of Bt maize growing required by the EU. We have made proposals on appropriate methods, their extent as well as the optimum time of their application.

BACKGROUND: Project based structures has become more and more common in the organizations of today. As the project based structures are given a more central role in the organizations the interdependencies between the projects are getting more attention. These structures need a new type of control to meet the unique challenges that arise. The research that has been done has been concentrated around the project form and the projects internal control, the area of multi-project management is therefore relatively unexplored. The few existing studies on the subject focus on projects in the construction industry why research in more complex fields of business have been requested. PURPOSE: The purpose of this thesis is to explore and analyze how knowledge intense multi-project organizations manage their project activities, and to determine how different organizational characteristics affect the need for management control systems. METHODOLOGY: The empirical data has been collected through interviews with personnel in BT Products R&amp;D, Gambro R&amp;D and AstraZeneca Development. These organizations are all mature and project intense. CONCLUSION: With an organization´s line of business follows a certain level of uncertainty and interdependencies between projects. Another important factor is the organization´s level of internal and external differentiation. These three factors together describe the characteristics of an organization, which forms the organization´s starting position. To handle the uncertainty of unpredicted events the organizations’ reflexes has to be quick enough; this is made possible through a project oriented organizational structure where the project managers have more authority than the function manager. Interdependencies between projects is handled through coordination, the level of coordination needed is dependent on the degree of interdependencies. Last but not least the organization has to handle the complexity that comes with the degree of internal and external differentiation. This is managed through the integration and extent of the management control systems. In the analysis chapter a model is presented that describes the relationship between the organization characteristics and management control systems. / BAKGRUND: I dagens organisationer är det allt vanligare att verksamheten bedrivs i projektform. När företag allt mer började ta till sig projektbaserade strukturer kom relationen mellan projekt i fokus. Denna arbetsform kräver en ny typ av styrning, detta för att hantera de beroenden som finns mellan projekten samt för att möta de samordningsproblem som kan uppstå. De senaste åren har projektstyrning blivit ett allt vanligare forskningsområde, multiprojektstyrning finns det dock inte mycket information om. Den forskning som väl genomförts har inriktats mot byggsektorn varför forskning på komplexare områden eftertysts. SYFTE: Syftet med uppsatsen är att undersöka och analysera hur kunskapsintensiva multiprojektorganisationer hanterar sin projektverksamhet, samt att utröna hur olika organisationers egenskaper påverkar behovet av styrsystem. GENOMFÖRANDE: Det empiriska materialet har samlats in genom intervjuer på BT Products R&amp;D, Gambro R&amp;D och AstraZeneca Development R&amp;D. Samtliga organisationer är mogna och har en arbetsgång som baseras på projekt. RESULTAT: Ett företags verksamhetsområde medför en viss grad av osäkerhet i den praktiska verksamheten, ytterligare en annan verksamhetsspecifik faktor är beroendegrad mellan projekt. Vidare är ett viktigt karaktärsdrag hos organisationer graden av differentiering. Dessa tre faktorer beskriver organisationens karaktäristika, med andra ord vilket utgångsläge organisationen har i sitt arbete. För att kunna hantera osäkerhet krävs att organisationen har tillräckligt bra reflexer för att möta oförutsedda händelser, detta löses genom att ge projekten mer auktoritet jämfört med funktionen. För att hantera beroenden krävs att verksamheten koordineras, vilken grad av koordinering som krävs beror på vilken grad av beroenden som finns representerat. Slutligen måste den komplexitet som differentiering ger hanteras, detta sker genom integrationen och omfattningen av styrsystemen. I uppsatsen presenteras avslutningsvis en modell som beskriver relationen mellan organisationen och dess styrning.