Orientador: Adriano Luiz Tonetti / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Civil, Arquitetura e Urbanismo / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-23T09:50:45Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Cruz_LuanaMattosdeOliveira_D.pdf: 6934154 bytes, checksum: 61a0ccbf918fa03d5286b5be5d9bb7fc (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013 / Resumo: Nos países em desenvolvimento, estimativas indicam que 82% das residências rurais não têm acesso a serviços sanitários. A falta de esgotamento sanitário aumenta o risco de doenças de veiculação hídrica e compromete a sustentabilidade ambiental. Por esta situação, muitos estudos são conduzidos para serem avaliados tratamentos descentralizados que são mais indicados para estas áreas com residências dispersas. Entretanto, a maioria dos estudos são feitos em escala de bancada havendo a necessidade do desenvolvimento de trabalhos em escala real sob condições de campo. Frente ao exposto, o presente trabalho visou à construção de um sistema de tratamento de esgoto doméstico descentralizado em escala real composto por um tanque séptico seguido de filtro de areia e desinfetado. O objetivo foi avaliar a sua instalação, manutenção, operação e eficiência de tratamento em condições de campo, além de verificar as condições de desinfecção para reúso em vaso sanitário. Os resultados demonstram que esta associação operou de maneira eficiente e que necessita de manutenção a cada 2 meses. O efluente final tinha concentrações superiores ao limite máximo permitido pelas legislações vigentes em termos de nitrogênio amoniacal e fósforo, entretanto há grande potencial de reúso agrícola para este produto final. Em relação à adequação ao reúso em vaso sanitário, foi necessária a desinfecção durante 45 minutos com solução de hipoclorito de cálcio em concentração de 1,15 mgL-1. Deste modo, este estudo originou uma importante contribuição para o saneamento de comunidades isoladas / Abstract: In developing countries, estimates indicate that 82% of rural residences lack sanitation services which lead to an increase in the prevalence of water-borne diseases and hinders the community's environmental sustainability. Numerous studies have been done in order to evaluate the efficacy and feasibility of decentralized treatments which may be more indicated to these areas with diffuse households. However, the majority of these studies have been completed in laboratories or in pilot-scale programs, and full-scale field investigations are still lacking. Thus this investigation aimed to construct a decentralized wastewater treatment system in real scale, consisting of a septic tank, a sand filter and a disinfection essay. This study aimed to evaluate the installation, maintenance, operation and treatment efficiency of the water treatment system under field conditions, and also to define disinfection conditions required for the reuse of the effluent in the toilet. Results have shown that the implemented water treatment system was independently effective throughout a 2 - month period, after which point maintenance was requited. Nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations in final effluent were above the levels recommended by Brazilian standards; on the other hand, even so there is a great potential effluent for crops irrigation reusing. In order to disinfect the effluent for toilet use, it was necessary a sodium hypochlorite solution with 1,15mgL-1 concentration. In all, results indicated that the decentralized wastewater treatment system implemented in this study was nearly efficient with minimal engineering requirements. Therefore this research contributed for sanitation in rural areas / Doutorado / Saneamento e Ambiente / Doutora em Engenharia Civil

Orientador : Arnaldo Yoshiteru Kuaye / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia de Alimentos / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-03T09:56:17Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Okazaki_MargareteMidori_M.pdf: 3301882 bytes, checksum: 0aec297ce29595ad1319a5f12e0100ac (MD5) Previous issue date: 2003 / Resumo: Desinfetantes com ação bactericida podem ser avaliados através de vários métodos. No Brasil, são considerados como oficiais para a determinação da eficácia bactericida desses produtos, o método de diluição de uso e o método de suspensão da Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC). Embora o método de suspensão (AOAC 960.09) apresente algumas vantagens sobre o método de diluição de uso (Use Dilution Method AOAC 955.14 e 955.15), quanto ao custo e simplicidade, sua aplicação ainda é limitada a testes com compostos de amônio quaternário em concentrações de até 200 mg/L. No Brasil, as concentrações recomendadas pelos fabricantes de desinfetantes a base de compostos de amônio quaternário variam de 200 a 10.000 mg/L, o que inviabiliza a utilização do método de suspensão para a avaliação da eficácia bactericida desses produtos. Para tanto, é necessária uma padronização para concentrações acima de 200 mg/L, permitindo sua adoção pelos laboratórios de controle de qualidade de desinfetantes, no monitoramento da qualidade dos produtos colocados no mercado ou durante o processo de fabricação. Os objetivos deste trabalho foram a) adequar o método de suspensão da AOAC para análise da eficácia bactericida de desinfetantes a base de cloreto de benzalcônio, em concentrações acima de 200 mg/L e b) realizar uma avaliação comparativa entre o método de suspensão modificado e o método de diluição de uso da AOAC, na suspensão foi modificado pela substituição da etapa de neutralização química pela introdução de uma etapa de neutralização física, ou seja, filtração com membrana (0.45 mm) seguida de lavagem das células com tampão fosfato. Os resultados dos testes confirmaram a eficiência do procedimento de filtração e lavagem das células, não sendo detectado resíduo de desinfetante nas membranas ou efeito bactericida da membrana sobre os microrganismos, validando assim a adaptação proposta neste trabalho. A comparação entre o método de suspensão modificado e o método de diluição de uso mostrou que, de 108 testes realizados em concentrações ³200 mg/L, os dois métodos concordaram em 77,8% dos casos, ambos aprovando ou reprovando o desinfetante, na condição testada. Esse resultado pode ser considerado bom, uma vez que o método modificado apresentou taxa de discordância de apenas 17,3% entre as repetições, valor este bem menor que no método de diluição de uso, com taxa de discordância de 43,1% / Abstract: Bactericidal disinfectants can be evaluated through several methods. In Brazil, the AOAC dilution method and the AOAC suspension method are considered as the official methods to determine bactericidal efficacy of disinfectants. Although the AOAC 960.09 suspension method has some advantages over the AOAC dilution method (Use dilution method AOAC 955.14 and 955.15), such as lower cost and simplicity, its usage is still restricted to ammonium quaternary compounds tests, in concentration lower than 200 mg/L. In Brazil, the recommended concentration of ammonium quaternary disinfectant by the manufacturers varies from 200 to 10,000 mg/L, thus making suspension method impractical to the bactericidal efficacy evaluation of those products. So, it is essential to standardize the suspension method above 200 mg/L concentration, allowing its adoption by disinfectant quality control laboratories, in the quality monitoring of those products in the market or during manufacturing process. The purposes of this research were: a) to adequate AOAC suspension method for the evaluation of benzalkonium chloride bactericidal activity in concentration above 200 mg/L, and b) to make a comparative evaluation between modified suspension method and AOAC use dilution method, determining bactericidal efficacy of several benzalkonium chloride disinfectants against Staphylococcus aureus A TCC 6538, Salmonella choleraesuis A TCC 10708 and Escherichia colí A TCC 11229. The suspension method was modified through the substitution of chemical neutralization by using the filtration process in membrane (0,45 mm) followed by washing the cells with phosphate buffer solution. Results of the tests confirmed the filtration and washing efficacy, since no residual disinfectant on the membranes or bactericidal effect of the membrane over the of them approving or rejecting the disinfectant, in tested condition. This result can be considered good, since the modified method presented only 17,3% discordance rate among repetitions, this value was smaller than the use dilution method which, in this case, was 43,1% / Mestrado / Mestre em Tecnologia de Alimentos

Infections are a major source of morbidity and cause of mortality during the post-operative phase for patients. Wound infections are the second most commonly encountered type of nosocomial, hospital-acquired, infection in the United States (Nichols, 2007:8). Owing to the fact that wound infection may be induced, such as, by not applying infection control and sterile technique principles in the operating room complex, it is imperative to implement infection control principles and apply sterile technique principles. The researcher noticed that some of the sterile technique principles were not carried out in the operating room complex which lead to the necessity to assess the knowledge of registered nurses’ regarding the implementation of infection control and sterile technique principles. The main goal of the study was to explore and describe the knowledge of registered nurses’ in two private hospitals in the Nelson Mandela Metropole, related to infection control and sterile technique principles in the operating room complex. Following the analysis of the data, the researcher made recommendations for changes to be made to the existing infection control guidelines in the operating room complex. The research design was quantitative, explorative, descriptive and contextual in nature. The sample consisted of all the registered nurses known as scrub nurses, in the operating room complex. The unit managers were excluded from the study, because the researcher utilized their assistance with the handing out and collecting of the questionnaires because, not all scrub nurses were at work at the same time. Firstly a pilot study was conducted (in both private hospitals) to confirm the reliability of the data collection instrument. Data was collected by means of a questionnaire that was self-administered and consisted out of three sections: Section A – Biographical Data; Section B – Knowledge Base Related to Infection Control Principles and Section C – Knowledge Base Related to the Principles of Asepsis. The researcher consulted experts to ensure the reliability and validity of the questionnaires and to ensure that the iv questionnaires would measure what it is intended to measure and that it will remain consistent. The data obtained from the questionnaires was analyzed by means of statistical and inferential analysis and included descriptive statistics with the assistance of a statistician. Following the analysis of the data, recommendations for changes to be made to the existing infection control guidelines in the operating room complex was made. This was done with relevant literature and the guidelines were discussed with experts in the field. The researcher ensured that all the legal and ethical requirements, such as the participants’ right to privacy, were maintained throughout the study.

>Magister Scientiae - MSc / Water is essential for life, yet access to safe drinking water is still a major concern worldwide due to waterborne diseases. The current study proposes silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) as an antibacterial agent. Silver nanoparticles were synthesised using different reductants and stabilisers, and the resulting structures were characterised with Ultra-violet visible (UV-vis) spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) analysis. The antibacterial properties of the AgNPs were tested against a panel of 5 indicator organisms: Cupriavidus metallidurans, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Mycobacterium smegmatis, Bacillus cereus and a multi-drug resistant Escherichia coli 1699. Spherical AgNPs that absorbed at around 400 nm, with diameters ranging between 18.8-26.4 nm or 5.4-13.1 nm were prepared by ascorbic acid or sodium borohydride respectively. The optimum processing conditions that produced 6±1.8 nm spherical nanoparticles included maintaining the temperature at 0 ⁰C, the pH at 9.78 and the NaBH4/Ag/PVP ratio at 16:1:10. Exposing AgNPs to light for 6 hours did not alter the particle size rather it changed the particles shape from spherical to icosahedral. Stirring caused particles to agglomerate, however, no agitation resulted in the formation of irregular structures of different sizes. Sensitivity to the AgNPs ranged between 25 % and 100 % reduced bacterial growth depending on the strains used and the concentration of the AgNPs. The Gram negative bacteria were more sensitive to AgNPs than Gram positive bacteria. However silver ions were more toxic than AgNPs for all but one of the strains tested, B. cereus was completely resistant to both Ag+ and AgNPs. C. metallidurans and E.coli (1699) showed a dose dependent sensitivity to AgNPs and the minimum inhibitory concentrations were established at 50 and 20 mg/L AgNPs respectively. C. metallidurans and E.coli (1699) were also eradicated by 10 mg/L Ag+. The E. coli TEM images showed accumulation of AgNPs within the cells, cell shrinking and leakage of cellular components. This suggests that AgNPs have a similar toxicity effect on bacterial cells as Ag+.

Objetivo: Avaliar a efetividade antimicrobiana e estabilidade física de duas formulações de ácido peracético no processo de desinfecção terminal estabilidade de ácido peracético no processo de desinfecção terminal. Metodologia: Corpos-de-prova em aço inoxidável foram contaminados com S. aureus, E. coli, C. albicans, sangue e saliva e depois imersos em ácido peracético (Sekusept Aktiv 2% ou Proxitane Alfa 0,25%) por dez, 15 e trinta minutos e depois colocados em solução de tiossulfato de sódio, agitados e a suspensão obtida semeada em meios seletivos e enriquecido para contagem de unidades formadoras de colônia. Este procedimento foi realizado seis vezes ao dia por 24 dias não consecutivos. Corpos-de-prova contaminados e não submetidos à desinfecção foram utilizados para controle. Foram monitorados a temperatura ambiente, pH e concentração das soluções desinfetantes. Resultado: A concentração de ácido peracético na solução Sekusept Aktiv (SA) variou de 250mg/mL a indetectável e seu pH se manteve estável (pH 5,0) e para a solução Proxitane Alfa (PA) a concentração variou entre 500 e 400mg/mL e o pH de 2,0 a 3,0. A temperatura ambiente durante o experimento foi superior (p= 0,0230) à temperatura de armazenamento. As duas formulações de ácido peracético reduziram o número de micro-organismos (p= 0,0001). SA demonstrou diminuição do potencial inibitório após o quarto dia e PA manteve este potencial durante todo o período experimental. A redução microbiana, para cada produto, não diferiu significativamente nos diferentes tempos de exposição. Conclusão: O ácido peracético Proxitane Alfa demonstrou estabilidade superior, mantendo sua efetividade no processo de desinfecção terminal por doze dias consecutivos, enquanto o Sekusept Aktiv demonstrou esta habilidade por somente quatro dias. / Aim: To evaluate the antimicrobial effectiveness and physical stability of two formulations of peracetic acid in the teminal disinfection process. Methods: Stainless steel specimens were contamined with S. aureus, E. coli, C. albicans, blood and saliva and then immersed in peracetic acid (Sekusept Aktiv2% or Proxitane Alpha 0.25%) for ten, 15 and thirty minutes and then mixed in sterile of sodium thiosulfate solution. The obtained suspensions were plated on selective and enriched media for counting colony forming units. This procedure was performed six times a day, for 24 non-consecutive days. Not contaminated specimens were used as control. Room temperature, pH and concentration of solutions were also investigated. Results: The concentration of peracetic acid in the Sekusept Aktiv (SA) solution ranged from 250mg/ml to undetectable and its pH remained stable (pH 5.0) and for Proxitane Alpha (PA) solution, the concentration ranged between 500 and 400mg/ml and pH between 2.0 to 3.0. The temperature during the experiment was higher (p= 0.0230) then the storage temperature. Both formulations of peracetic acid reduced the number of microorganisms (p = 0.0001). SA showed decreasing inhibitory potential after four days and PA maintained its potential throughout the experiment period. The microbial reduction for each product did not differ in the different times of exposition. Conclusion: Proxitane Alpha peracetic acid showed higher stability, keeping its disinfection effectiveness for twelve consecutive days, while Sekusept Aktiv showed this ability for only for four days.

Thesis (DTech (Environmental Health))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2016. / Trihalomethanes are disinfection byproducts of chlorinated waters, and there is a growing interest to understand plant responses to organohalogens. This study investigates the effects of increasing trihalomethane dose on the physiology of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) and determines whether the extent of physiological impacts of trihalomethane exposure on seedling radicle length, biomass accumulation, concentration levels of 12 key nutrients, oxidative stress, fatty acids and α-tocopherol content in membrane lipids of tomato correlated with either the number of bromine or chlorine atoms in the trihalomethane molecules. The 2 x 4 x 5 factorial experiment was laid out in CRD with four replications. Two cultivars of tomato were exposed to 4 levels of trihalomethanes (bromodichloromethane, bromoform, chloroform and dibromochloromethane) and 5 levels of concentration (0.0, 2.5, 5.0, 7.5, and 10.0 mg.L-1) in a green house. The decrease in seedling biomass and the inhibition of radicle growth increased with increasing trihalomethane concentrations in a dose dependent manner. Also, both these parameters decreased in response to an increase in the number of bromine atoms in the trihalomethane molecule. However, in growing plants the decrease in concentration levels of seven essential nutrients namely nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), sulphur (S), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn) & boron (B) correlated to an increase in the number of chlorine atoms. Increase in trihalomethane dose also induced a decrease in all the above mentioned nutrients with the addition of manganese (Mn), although the decrease in P and S were not significant at P ≤ 0.05. The increase in trihalomethane dose induced an increase in oxidative stress parameters such as the total phenolic content, ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC), ascorbate peroxidase (APX), guaiacol peroxidase (GPX) and lipid peroxidation. The increase in the above parameters correlated to an increase in the number of chlorine atoms, however, no such correlations were observed in superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity, general lipid peroxidation, α-tocopherol content and totalsoluble proteins. In plant membrane lipids, increase in the saturated fat hexadecanoic acid was observed in both tomato cultivars that correlated to the degree of chlorination in the trihalomethane molecule. The increase in α-linolenic acid stress signaling correlated with an increase in the degree of chlorination in only one tomato cultivar suggesting variable tolerance between cultivars to chemical action. Membrane lipids adjustments in tomato plants exposed to increasing trihalomethane dose were based on two factors; first the adjustments of membrane fluidity with the increase in plant sterols and fatty acids content and secondly, the increase in lipophyllic antioxidants such as phenols, quinones and α-tocopherol content. The phenolic lipophyllic antioxidant was tentatively identified to be 2,2’-methylenebis [6-(1,1-dimethylethyl)-4-methyl] phenol. In conclusion, the magnitude of plant responses to trihalomethanes is more dependent on the halogenation number of the molecule and less on its concentration.

Aboard the International Space Station, potable water will likely be produced from recycled wastewater. The National Aeronautic and Space Administration (NASA) plans to use iodine as a disinfectant, and, consequently, the formation of iodinated disinfection by-products (IDBPs) requires investigation. Objectives of this research were to determine possible precursors of IDBPs, identify IDBPs formed, and apply flavor profile analysis (FPA) as a tool to evaluate water qaulity. Experiments were performed by separately reacting iodine with each of the following organic compounds: methanol, ethanol, 1-propanol, 2-propanol, 1-methoxy-2-propanol, acetone, and formaldehyde. NASA previously identified all of these compounds in wastewater sources under consideration for recycling into potable water. Experiments were performed at pH 5.5 and 8, iodine concentrations of 10 and 50 mg/L, and organic concentrations of 5 and 50 mg/L. Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry was used to identify and monitor the concentrations of organic species. Spectrophotometry was used to monitor the iodine concentration. Acetone was the only compound identified as an IDBP precursor and it reacted to produce iodoacetone and iodoform. Concentrations of iodoform from 0.34 mg/L to 8.637 mg/L were produced at conditions that included each pH level, iodine concentration, and acetone concentration. The greatest iodoform concentration was produced at pH 8 from 50 mg/L of iodine and acetone. FPA indicated that the odor threshold concentration (OTC) of iodoform was 1.5 ug/L, and the OTC of iodine was 500 ug/L. Both iodine and iodoform have medicinal odors, making it difficult to distinguish each compound when present in a mixture. / Master of Science

Mycobacterium avium, an opportunistic human pathogen, infects between 25 and 50% of advanced-stage acquired immuno-deficiency syndrome (AIDS) patients in the United States. M. avium has been isolated from many environmental sources including: natural waters, soils, and aerosols. M. avium has also been recovered from within municipal and hospital drinking water systems. Rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) infected with the simian HIV analog, SIV, have been shown to acquire M. avium infections from potable water. Reduced-aggregate fractions (cell suspensions free of large aggregates) of Mycobacterium avium were exposed to chlorine, monochloramine, chlorine dioxide, and ozone and kinetics of disinfection measured. Chlorine disinfection kinetics was also measured in M. avium cultures grown in biofilms. M. avium exhibited a high resistance to chlorine compared to E. coli. M. avium CT99.9% (disinfectant concentration x time to 3 logs cell inactivation) values were between 571- and 2318 -times those of E. coli. Clinical isolates of M. avium showed 0.24 and 2.5-fold increase in resistance to chlorine compared to their pulsed-field-gel-electrophoresis- (PFGE) matched environmental isolates. M. avium strains exhibited a mixed response to exposure to monochloramine. The CT99.9% values of three strains (2 clinical, 1 environmental) were between 6.3- and 23.5- times that of E. coli. Two strains (1 clinical, 1 environmental) exhibited CT99.9% values approximately the same as E. coli, a difference from all the other disinfectants which were much less effective on M. avium than on E. coli. M. avium strains exhibited a high resistance to chlorine dioxide when compared to E.coli. M. avium CT99.9% values of between 133- and 706- times higher that that of E. coli. In the paired isolates tested, the clinical isolate was 5.3 times more resistant than the matched environmental isolate. M. avium exhibited a high resistance to ozone when compared to E. coli. M. avium strains exhibited a CT99.9% value of between 52 and 90 times higher that that of E. coli. In the paired isolates tested, the clinical isolate was nearly identical as judged by CT99.9% values. M. avium strain 5002 exhibited an unusual disinfection kinetics curve. Disinfection rate increased by a non-logarithmic factor, indicating that inactivation efficiency was increasing over time. M. avium strain 1060 showed between a 17% decrease to a 265% increase in CT99.9% value when grown as biofilms as opposed to suspension. Due to the large variance in biofilm density and and CT99.9% values, any conclusions based on these experiments should be considered tentative at best. M. avium's resistance to chlorine and chlorine dioxide approaches that of the protozoan cysts of Giardia muris and Entamoeba hystolytica. M. avium is much less resistant, relatively, to monochloramine possessing values similar to E. coli. Ozone resistance of M. avium is two orders of magnitude greater than E. coli and one order of magnitude of less than G. muris cysts. A critical concentration threshold level for chlorine dioxide was found. That is, there was no linear relationship between concentration of chlorine dioxide and cell inactivation. Initial experiments using a range of concentrations from 0.1 ppm to 0.5 ppm chlorine dioxide showed a biphasic curve with the inflection point (indicating the critical concentration) between 0.3 and 0.4 ppm chlorine dioxide. / Master of Science

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