Submitted in partial compliance with the requirements for a Master Degree in Technology: Chiropractic at the Durban University of Technology, 2009. / Background: Research has indicated the majority of bacteria on chiropractic adjustment beds (beds), can persist on dry inanimate surfaces for months. Thus, insufficient disinfection procedures create continuous sources of pathogens endangering patients and healthcare workers alike. This research study aimed to assess the beds as reservoirs for micro-organisms, at a chiropractic teaching clinic (clinic) in South Africa. Method: A selection of samples obtained from the headrests and armrests of the beds were serially diluted, plated in duplicate (using the spread plate technique) and incubated for 24-48 hours at 37°C. After inspection for the presence of micro-organisms, those present were enumerated to determine their quantities, the microbial build-up throughout the day, as well as the degree of the transmission from the patients to the beds during treatment. The incidence of the micro-organisms was established, along with their identities, using microscopic and macroscopic characteristics. These micro-organisms were also used to assess the efficacy of the disinfectant currently in use by the clinic. Results: Microbial growth was present on 89.4% of the beds sampled. The quantities of the micro-organisms increased significantly (p=0,027) from 7:30 am to 16:30 pm, with the median increasing from 25 colony forming units (cfu) / cm2 to 714 792 cfu/ cm2. The microbial build-up was highly significant (p<0.001), with a median of 346 cfu/ cm2 at 7:30 am and 10:30 am; increasing to 162 291 cfu/ cm2 by 13:30 pm and 250 million cfu/ cm2 by 16:30 pm. There was also a significant increase (p<0.001) in the quantity of micro-organisms during treatment with a median of 0 cfu/ cm2 before treatment that rose to 23 479 cfu/cm2 after treatment, indicating that the micro-organisms present on the beds were being deposited by the patient`s skin during the treatment. The most prevalent micro-organisms identified were Staphylococci and Serratia, with an average of 59% and 40% of colonies; while Micrococci and Bacilli were relatively uncommon. No growth was evident after 5 minutes of exposure to the disinfectant during the growth inhibition test. For the Kirby Bauer test, the average size of the zone of inhibition increased as the dilution decreased. The disinfectant is effective but more so against the Gram-positive than the Gram-negative bacteria. The disinfectant was 5,0, 5,5 and 5,6 times more effective than phenol in eradicating Staphylococci, Serratia and Bacilli, respectively. Conclusions and Recommendations: This study showed that micro-organisms were present on the beds. Staphylococci and Serratia have been implicated in many healthcare associated infections. The present disinfectant is effective, but should be used in between every patient. A different or additional disinfectant that is more effective against the Gram-negative bacteria should be considered for future use.

Beyond the expected DBP exposure from drinking water, dermal from bathing, and inhalation, occurrence in food and beverage items can provide an additional occurrence pathway. Synthetic dyes are often added to beverages for aesthetic purposes and many are in the form of a reactive azo (-N=N-) dye or triarylmethane dye, both with a characteristic aromatic ring. The presence of dyes in beverages that are reconstituted with disinfected tap water pose the risk of reactions with the residual chlorine in the drinking water resulting in decolorization, and of greater concern, disinfection byproduct formation. Additionally, oral over-the-counter (OTC) medications contain chemical constituents that when reconstituted with tap water present a risk of DBP formation. Several studies were performed to evaluate the kinetic decay rates of the dyes and drugs in disinfectants, and the effects of water quality conditions on DBP formation. Commercial beverage products and OTC medications were evaluated for the DBPs that were detected in the free chlorine-treated precursor samples. The dye and drugs precursors followed second order kinetics, with the fastest rates for brilliant blue and phenylephrine in chlorinated water. The effects of water properties on precursor degradation and DBP formation was complex due to the influence of characteristics of precursor molecules. The cytotoxic and anti-estrogenic responses were measured in the dye and drug precursors and their respective beverages and OTC medications, to determine potential links. Mio Energy showed estrogenic character and Alka Seltzer induced an anti-estrogenic and cytotoxic response, however there were no clear linkages between the beverage/ medication and their respective dye and drug precursors.

Statement of problem. Clinicians have used disinfection materials to remove surface contaminants during cavity preparation. It has been postulated that disinfection materials may negatively affect shear bond strength of restorative materials. If so, large numbers of restorations may be predestined for early failure with the use of a disinfection protocol.Purpose. To determine whether there is a difference in the bond strength between dentin and composite resin with a 3-step disinfection technique compared to a conventional bonding technique without the additional disinfection protocol.Material and Methods. Sixty human molar teeth were sectioned parallel to the occlusal surface to expose mid-coronal dentin and mounted parallel to a bond shearing device on a universal testing machine (Instron) and randomly divided into 2 groups. In Group I (n=30), specimens were treated with chlorhexidine, tubulicid red, and sodium hypochlorite before dentin bonding, following the manufacturer's instructions for All Bond 2. In Group II (n=30), specimens were treated only with the bonding protocol of All Bond 2. To ensure a uniform bond surface area, core paste was syringed into a cylindrical mold (diameter 2.38mm, height 2.00mm) that was in contact with the dentin bonding surface of each specimen, and allowed to set under constant force. All specimens were subjected to fracture by shear loading in a universal testing machine (Instron) at a uniform crosshead speed of 0.02 inch per minute and expressed as MPa. Statistical analysis, using nonpaired student's t-test, was performed. Results. A statistically-significant higher shear bond strength was found for the 3-step disinfection group (mean shear bond strength, 25.3; STD, 4.6) compared to the conventional bonding group (mean shear bond strength, 20.5, STD, 3.4) (PConclusions. The 3-step disinfection technique group showed a significantly stronger dentin shear bond strength compared to the conventional bonding technique without disinfection.

Les dérivés aminostéroïdiens analogues de la squalamine ont été largement étudiés pour leur large spectre d’activité sur les bactéries et les champignons multirésistants. Nous avons réalisé la synthèse de nouveaux dérivés aminostéroïdiens et présentant de nombreuses charges positives liées à la présence de groupements azotés, les 3,20-bis(polyaminostéroïdes) analogues de la squalamine. Une étude de la relation structure-activité a démontré l’importance des charges positives induites par la présence d’atomes d’azote dans les chaines carbonées portées par le motif cholestane. Nous avons mis en évidence les mécanismes d’action mis en oeuvre vis-à-vis des bactéries Gram positive et Gram négative. L’étude des activités antifongiques démontre que la squalamine et le dérivé aminostéroïdien DAS-1 possèdent de bonnes activités sur diverses souches de levures impliquées dans de nombreuses fongémies, avec des CMIs variant de 1 à 16 &#956;g/mL. Nous avons étudié les applications potentielles de ces dérivés et démontré que ces dérivés en formulation de pommades à 1% de squalamine et de dérivé 3.20-bis(polyaminostéroïdien) étaient capables de réduire efficacement la colonisation cutanée à S. aureus sur un modèle animal. Il a été démontré que ces dérivés bis(polyaminostéroïdiens) sont également très actifs vis-à-vis de bactérie et de champignons multirésistants isolés des patients mucoviscidosiques. Nous avons testé leur activité en tant qu’agent désinfectant de matériel médical et plus particulièrement les nébuliseurs. La formation de cachets hydrosolubles à base de squalamine, nous a permis de développer un modèle de désinfection simple, rapide et peu onéreux des nébuliseurs contaminés. / Aminosterol derivatives analogues of squalamine possess a broad spectrum activity against multidrug resistant bacteria and fungi. We synthesized a new series of 3,20-bis(polyaminosteroïd) analogues involving a titanium reductive amination possessing numerous positives charges due to the presence of nitrogen groups. The study of relation structure-activity demonstrates that the nature of the amino group attached to the sterol plays a crucial role on antimicrobial activity of these compounds. We had also determined the mechanism of action of bis(polyaminosteroïd) on Gram negative and Gram positive bacteria. The study of antifungal activity of squalamine and aminosterol derivative ASD-1 show a good activity against various yeast responsible of fungal infections, minimal inhibitrice concentration ranging from 1 to 16 &#956;g/mL. We studied a potential application of these compounds in human therapeutic. We evaluated squalamine and related parent-derived ointments (1%) as potential new compounds for S. aureus decolonization in a new mouse model. Using this model we found that squalamine ointment (1%) was able to reduce efficiently S. aureus colonization. Squalamine and bis(polyaminosteroïd) derivatives were actives against multidrug resistant bacteria and fungi isolated from cystic fibrosis patients. We investigated the potential use of squalamine compound in vitro in a nebulizer disinfection model. A formulation of squalamine disinfecting soluble tablets at 2.5 % (W/W) was developed and successfully applied for rapid nebulizer disinfection.

This research validates electro-disinfection as a potential secondary ballast water treatment technology. Electricity applied to bacteria laden water produced bactericidal effects, reactive oxygen species and chlorine generation which annihilated bacteria. Evaluation of electro-disinfection experiments showed titanium electrodes had the maximum kill efficacy while disinfection with aluminum and stainless steel electrodes had lesser kill efficacy. A continuous flow electro-disinfection reactor was evaluated utilizing artificial brackish and fresh ballast water. Brackish water had a 100% bacteria kill efficiency utilizing titanium electrodes at a current density of 10 mA/cm2. Fresh water was augmented with the addition of salt to increase its electrical conductivity from 232 μS/cm to 873 μS/cm to ascertain 100% bacteria kill efficiency with titanium electrodes and a current density of 9.8 mA/cm2.

Wastewater treatment has always been a problem to human settlers. Events such as the great stink of London during the summer of 1858 have pushed engineers into developing new technologies to deal with such wastes in effective and safe ways. Research projects like this aim to find ways of improving performance, economics, or environmental friendliness of treatment and disinfection methods. This thesis deals with the effectiveness, mechanisms of action, by-products and side effects of using DC current to disinfect secondary effluent. It is proposed as an alternative to conventional methods, such as chlorination, which are not always environmentally friendly or feasible. It was demonstrated that DC current efficiently kills pathogens. DC properly used achieves disinfection significantly higher than the minimum required by the EPA. Nevertheless disinfection by products such as residual chlorine should be taken into account when considering this technology as an alternative to conventional chlorination.

Métodos de desinfecção da água destinam-se à inativação de patógenos a fim de minimizar o risco de doenças transmitidas pela água. Estes métodos incluem tratamento com luz ultravioleta e processos químicos, para o qual cloro, dióxido de cloro, hipoclorito e ozônio são comumente utilizados. No entanto, métodos analíticos modernos revelam que estes métodos padrão de desinfecção da água podem levar à formação de produtos tóxicos e potencialmente cancerígenos. Desse modo, desenvolver métodos mais adequados para a desinfecção de água é uma necessidade. Inativação Fotodinâmica é uma nova abordagem para a eliminação de microrganismos patogênicos. Basicamente, esse processo utiliza fotossensibilizadores e luz para promover uma resposta fototóxica, normalmente oxidativa, capaz de danificar biomoléculas e estruturas celulares, provocando a morte dos microrganismos. No entanto, o fotossensibilizador não pode permanecer livre como um contaminante neste tipo de aplicação. Assim, o objetivo desse estudo foi o desenvolvimento de membranas de quitosana com fotossensibilizadores incorporados visando à desinfecção microbiológica da água. As membranas foram preparadas incorporando-se o azul de metileno, a rosa de bengala, meso-tetrakis (4-N-metilpiridil)-porfirina ou a 5,10,15,20-tetrakis(p-aminofenil)-porfirina. A eficiência do processo de Inativação Fotodinâmica com os fotossensibilizadores incorporados as membrana foi investigada empregando-se a bactéria Escherichia coli como modelo, já que esta bactéria está comumente presente em águas de abastecimento. Os resultados mostraram que, dentre os quatro fotossensibilizadores incorporados em membranas de quitosana, o processo fotodinâmico empregando a TMPyP se mostrou mais efetivo: 5 log de redução após 120 minutos de irradiação com LED branco e 4 log de redução após 120 e 140 minutos de irradiação com LED azul e amarelo, respectivamente. Além disso, com o intuito de simular uma situação real de desinfecção, um sistema circulatório de água, contendo membranas de quitosana/TMPyP reforçadas com nylon, foi empregado. Os resultados mostraram que o processo de fotoinativação dinâmico foi efetivo, apresentando 3 log de redução em 80 minutos de irradiação com LED branco. Estes resultados sugerem que o processo é efetivo para inativar bactérias contaminantes na água, empregando-se fotossensibilizadores incorporados em quitosana como suporte polimérico. / Methods of water disinfection aim to inactivate pathogens in order to minimize the risk of waterborne diseases. These methods include treatment with ultraviolet light and chemical processes, for which chlorine, chlorine dioxide, hypochlorite and ozone are commonly used. However, modern analytical methods reveal that these standard methods of water disinfection may lead to the formation of toxic and potentially carcinogenic products. Thus, developing suitable methods for water disinfection is a necessity. Photodynamic inactivation is a new approach to eliminate pathogenic microorganisms. Basically, this process uses photosensitizers and light to promote a phototoxic response, normally oxidative, capable of damaging biomolecules and cellular structures, causing the death of microorganisms. However, the photosensitizer cannot remain free as a contaminant in this type of application. The objective of this study was to develop chitosan membranes with incorporated photosensitizers aiming the microbiological water disinfection. The membranes were prepared by incorporating methylene blue, rose bengal, meso-tetrakis (4-N-methylpyridyl)-porphine or the 5,10,15,20-tetrakis(p-aminophenyl)- porphyrin. The efficiency of the Photodynamic Inactivation with photosensitizers incorporated into the membrane was investigated using the bacteria Escherichia coli as a model, since this bacteria is commonly present in drinking water. The results showed that, among the four photosensitizers incorporated into chitosan membranes, the process employing the TMPyP was more effective: 5 log reduction after 120 minutes of irradiation with white LED and 4 log reduction after 120 and 140 minutes of irradiation with blue and yellow LED, respectively. Moreover, in order to simulate a real situation of disinfection, a water circulation system, containing TMPyP/chitosan membranes reinforced with nylon, was employed. The results showed that the process of photoinactivation using a dynamic system was effective, with about 3 log reduction in 80 minutes of irradiation with white LED. These results suggest that the process is effective to inactivate bacterial contaminants in water using photosensitizers incorporated into chitosan as a polymeric support.

O modelo econômico extrair, transformar, descartar da atualidade está atingindo seus limites físicos. Confrontando-se com questões de disponibilidade de recursos A economia circular é uma alternativa atraente que busca redefinir a noção de crescimento, com foco em benefícios para toda a sociedade. Dentro dessa nova visão, conceitos de tratamentos descentralizados e sustentáveis de saneamento que concentram-se no tratamento e na reciclagem dos recursos presentes nas águas residuais domésticas são considerados. Assim, a partir de uma água residuária é possível obter três recursos principais: a bioenergia, nutrientes e água. Esta pesquisa teve por objetivo principal avaliar a produção de um efluente propício ao reúso não potável, a partir de água negra. A água negra foi tratada anaerobiamente (reator UASB) para remoção de matéria orgânica, seguindo para um fotobiorreator para remoção de nutrientes, com consequente separação da biomassa algal por flotação por ar dissolvido. Neste ponto foi avaliada a absorção de nutrientes pelas microalgas e o crescimento de sua biomassa. Após a flotação, o efluente foi desinfetado, avaliada assim, a inativação de coliformes totais e Escherichia coli, bem como de Giardia spp. e Cryptosporidium spp. no sistema de tratamento. O reator UASB manteve níveis elevados de remoção de matéria orgânica (DQO), com remoções de 70%. Apresentando uma média de remoção de Escherichia coli e coliformes fecais entre 1 e 3 log. Para protozoários essa remoção foi entre 0,5 e 1,5 log. O fotobiorreator, obteve satisfatório crescimento da biomassa, sem controle de temperaturas ou suplementação de CO2, apresentou também remoção/inativação de Escherichia coli e coliformes totais, com valores entre 0,50 a quase 3,0 log, apresentando de modo geral maior remoção/inativação para Escherichia coli. Foi observado remoção de protozoários e coliformes pela flotação por ar dissolvido, acarretando uma maior concentração destes na biomassa removida. O melhor desinfetante individual foi o cloro, em razão da inativação. No entanto, o ozônio foi o que melhor obteve remoção (oxidação) de matéria orgânica. Em relação aos desinfetantes aplicados de modo sequencial ou simultâneos, foi observado que a melhor inativação foi promovida pelo ensaio sequencial com ozônio e cloro, com inativação de até 3,10 e 3,38 log para Escherichia coli e coliformes totais, respectivamente. Com efeito sinérgico em relação a aplicação individual destes desinfetantes. Recomenda-se o uso do sistema para o tratamento descentralizado, principalmente em pequenas comunidades e em áreas rurais. / The current economic \"extract, transform, discard\" model is reaching its physical limits. Confronting with issues of resource availability Circular economics is an attractive alternative that seeks to redefine the notion of growth, with a focus on benefits for the whole society. Within this new vision, concepts of decentralized and sustainable sanitation treatments that focus on the treatment and recycling of resources present in domestic wastewater are considered. Thus, from a wastewater it is possible to obtain three main resources: bioenergy, nutrients and water. The main objective of this research was to evaluate the production of an effluent conducive to non-potable reuse from black water. The black water was treated anaerobically (UASB reactor) to remove organic matter, followed by a photobioreactor to remove nutrients, with consequent separation of the algal biomass by dissolved air flotation. At this point, the nutrient uptake by microalgae and the growth of their biomass were evaluated. After flotation, the effluent was disinfected, thus evaluating the inactivation of total coliforms and Escherichia coli, as well as Giardia spp. and Cryptosporidium spp. in the treatment system. The UASB reactor maintained high levels of organic matter removal (COD), with removals of 70%. Presents an average removal of Escherichia coli and faecal coliforms between 1 and 3 log. For protozoa this removal was between 0.5 and 1.5 log. The photobioreactor, obtained satisfactory biomass growth, without temperature control or CO2 supplementation, also showed removal/inactivation of Escherichia coli and total coliforms, with values ranging from 0.50 to almost 3.0 log, generally presenting greater removal inactivation for Escherichia coli. Removal of protozoa and coliforms by flotation by dissolved air was observed, leading to a higher concentration of these in the biomass removed. The best individual disinfectant was chlorine, due to inactivation. However, ozone was the one that best obtained removal (oxidation) of organic matter. Regarding disinfectants applied sequentially or simultaneously, it was observed that the best inactivation was promoted by the sequential test with ozone and chlorine, with inactivation of up to 3.10 and 3.38 log for Escherichia coli and total coliforms, respectively. With synergistic effect in relation to the individual application of these disinfectants. It is recommended to use the system for decentralized treatment, especially in small communities and in rural areas.

No sentido de colaborar com o estudo da redução de microrganismos em Endodontia, foi realizada uma análise crítica dos modelos metodológicos in vivo sobre as técnicas moleculares utilizadas na avaliação da microbiota endodôntica e na capacidade de medir a antissepsia que o tratamento endodôntico proporciona. Desta maneira, os trabalhos foram agrupados de acordo com a proposta do presente estudo. Na análise critica e comparativa, pode-se observar uma grande variedade de métodos moleculares aplicados nos estudos, sendo que o mais utilizado nos ensaios para avaliação da microbiota foi o PCR. Havia estudos que utilizavam uma combinação de vários métodos onde foi possível identificar microrganismos ainda não conhecidos. Nos ensaios que utilizam iniciadores universais e que se valem da identificação de microrganismos através do DNA, foram listados de maneira a poder observar que o iniciador universal formado pela seguinte cadeia de oligonucleotídeos: F: 5- AGA GTT TGA TCC TGG CTC AG-3/R: 5-ACG GCT ACC TTG TTA CGA CTT-3 foi o mais descrito pela literatura. / In order to collaborate with the study of disinfection in Endodontics, was performed a study of critical methodological models in vivo on the molecular techniques used in the evaluation of endodontic microbiota and the ability to measure the disinfection capacity of endodontic treatment. Thus, the studies were grouped according to the purpose of this study. Under in critical and comparative analysis its can be seen a wide variety of molecular techniques used in the studies, and as used in the tests was to evaluate the microbial PCR studies using a combination of various methods which could be identified microorganisms has not known. In assays using universal primers which rely on the identification of microorganisms using the DNA, were listed as to be able to observe that the universal primer chain formed by the following primers: F: 5\'-AGA GTT TGA TCC TGG CTC AG-3 \'/ R: 5\'-ACG GCT ACC TTG TTA CGA CTT-3\' was as described in the literature.

Bien que les microorganismes pathogènes soient rarement détectés au sein de réseaux de distribution d'eau potable, ils peuvent constituer un danger pour la santé humaine en cas de contamination accidentelle. Le devenir des virus entériques au sein d'un système de distribution d'eau est largement méconnu, alors que de telles informations sont nécessaires pour améliorer les procédures de prise en charge en cas d'incidents. Dans ce contexte, trois bactériophages ARN F-spécifiques, MS2, GA et Q[bêta], ont été utilisés comme modèles des virus entériques pathogènes, dans des conditions expérimentales mimant un système de distribution d'eau. Ce travail visait d'une part à comparer l'accumulation des phages sur des surfaces en polyéthylène haute densité (PEHD) colonisées ou non par des biofilms d'eau potable et d'autre part à évaluer, sur les bactériophages adhérés, l'efficacité de protocoles de nettoyage basés sur une chloration ainsi qu'une augmentation des contraintes hydrodynamiques. En résumé, les différentes vitesses d'eau étudiées n'ont pas conduit à des différences significatives dans l'accumulation des bactéries et des phages sur les surfaces, mais ont toutefois abouti à des concentrations surfaciques en phages significativement supérieures à celles observées en conditions hydrostatiques. Quelles que soient les conditions expérimentales (vitesses d'eau à la surface, présence ou absence d'un biofilm), le bactériophage MS2 présente systématiquement les plus faibles concentrations sur les surfaces. La séquence d'adhésion des trois bactériophages sur biofilms est en accord avec leur séquence d'hydrophobicité. Le protocole de chloration (4 à 5 mg Cl2.L-1) évalué dans cette étude peut être ponctuellement appliqué en cas de contamination de l'eau. Après 60 minutes de chloration, l'abattement est de 0,7 log10 pour les bactéries et il est compris entre 2 et 3 log10 pour les phages adsorbés sur les surfaces, alors qu'aucun phage infectieux n'est plus détecté dans l'eau dès 5 minutes de chloration. Ces résultats soulignent l'effet protecteur du biofilm, même jeune. Enfin, la chloration apparaît être plus efficace que l'augmentation des contraintes hydrodynamiques pour éliminer les bactériophages adhérés aux surfaces / Although pathogens remain widely uncommon in water distribution networks, they may constitute a real threat for human health when accidentally introduced in the system. There is a lack of knowledge about virus behaviour into water distribution systems whereas such information is critical for a better viral risk management. In this context, three F-specific RNA bacteriophages -MS2, GA and Qbeta- were used as models, in experimental conditions mimicking water distribution systems. The purpose of the present work was at first to compare the viral accumulation of bacteriophages on high-density polyethylene (HDPE) colonised or not with drinking water biofilms. The second objective was to evaluate, on phages adsorbed in the biofilm, the efficiency of a cleaning protocol, based on chlorination and increase in the hydrodynamic strengths. To sum up, the water velocities tested in this work had little influence on both the bacterial and virus accumulation on surfaces, but applying a water flow led to an increase in the number of adsorbed phages in comparison with hydrostatic conditions. Whatever the conditions (water velocity, colonisation or not with a biofilm) MS2 phage was found to be the less adherent one. On HDPE colonised with a two-month old biofilm, the adhesion sequence was consistent with the sequence of hydrophobicity of the phages. The chlorination protocol tested in our study (4 to 5 mg CL2/L) can be applied punctually in distribution networks. After 60 minutes of chlorination the log-reduction was about 0.7 log10 for bacteria and between 2 and 3 log10 for bacteriophages, while no more infectious phages were detected in water after 5 minutes. Those results highlight that even two-month-old biofilms provide to viruses a protection against disinfection protocol. At last, the chlorination appears to be more efficient to inactivate viruses adsorbed on surfaces than an increase in the water flow velocity