This dissertation consists of three essays examining the role of two particular social safety net programs, the Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) program and the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), on the well-being of children from disadvantaged households. While the impact of these programs on the adults and parents of the household have been studied extensively, less is known about their effect on children. This is true for both their immediate impact on child well-being and any long-run impacts on children who grow up under these programs. Given the demonstrated importance of child well-being on later life adult outcomes, understanding the lasting effects of the programs is of great policy importance. In Essay 1, I examine the effect of welfare reform on long-run educational attainment and family structure outcomes on children who grew up under the reformed welfare system. In the early 1990’s, the United States reformed its welfare system through state waivers and the TANF program. These changes altered family resources and potential investments for childhood human capital, which in turn could affect later adult outcomes. Using data from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID) Child Development Supplement (CDS) and the Transition to Adulthood Supplement (TAS), I examine the short-run effects of welfare reform on cognitive and noncognitive outcomes and the long-run impact of welfare reform on adult education and family structure through age 28. I find that as children, these individuals have higher reading test scores by an average of 6 percent of a standard deviation. As adults, I find robust evidence that these treated individuals are on average 9 percent more likely to graduate college. I also find some evidence that they are more likely to be married and less likely to have a child out of wedlock. The impacts of welfare reform are larger for women than men for childhood test scores and college completion, marriage rates, and out of wedlock births as adults. In Essay 2, I continue to study the effects of welfare reform on child well-being, here focusing on the effect of welfare reform on the health insurance coverage, healthcare utilization, and the health status of children. In addition to changing the overall resources available to the family to invest in child health, welfare reform also has specific implications for health insurance coverage. As mothers were moved to work they could gain private coverage and welfare reform eliminated automatic eligibility for Medicaid. In this essay, I use data from the PSID CDS. I find a 3-5 percent decrease in the likelihood that a child has had their annual checkup but no change to the insurance coverage of children. For health status, I find lower rates of asthma by 17 percent among African American children and an increase of 3-5 healthy days a year for all children. I present suggestive evidence that the improvements in child health are driving the reduction in healthcare utilization. Given the evidence in the literature on the importance of childhood health, these improvements have potentially large ramifications for future adult health. Finally, in Essay 3 I explore the effect of the real purchasing power of SNAP benefits for households with children on dietary quality of food acquisitions and food insecurity. SNAP, formerly food stamps, is one of the most important components of the social safety net. However, there is concern that benefits are inadequate given high food insecurity rates among participating households. Currently SNAP does not account for variation in local food prices and does not sufficiently consider the dietary needs of adolescent children. Using data from the Food Acquisition and Purchase Survey (FoodAPS), I exploit variation in county level food prices and family composition to estimate the purchasing power of food expenditures for SNAP and SNAP–eligible households to test for the effect of additional benefits on dietary quality and food security. I find that a ten percent increase in purchasing power is associated with increased per person weekly acquisition of grains, proteins, dairy, and vegetables by 1.5-2.5 percent. However the quantity of added sugars also increases by approximately two percent, suggesting an ambiguous impact on health. In line with these modest changes in quantity, I do not find a statistically significant impact of purchasing power on food insecurity rates.

Nutrition education has become a topic of significant concern in today’s society. An area prominent in the interest of nutrition is the battle against food security. Programs like the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program – Education (SNAP-Ed) is helping to improve its participants’ food security by providing nutrition education. Kentucky SNAP-Ed participants were asked to complete a survey and a 24-hour food recall to evaluate their knowledge in the following areas: Healthy Eating Index (HEI) scores, food resource management and nutrition practices. Each participant completed an average of 7-12 nutrition education lessons throughout the year. To graduate from the program participants were required to complete the same survey and food recall, applying knowledge gained from the program. Responses from 2,868 participants were analyzed to assess the impact of the SNAP-Ed program. Results demonstrated an improvement of average post-mean responses in all three areas (p-value < 0.001). In conclusion, this research supports that those who participated in the 2012 – 2013 SNAP-Ed program graduated with an overall positive change in nutrition behavior, promoting enhanced food security in low-income families.

Introduction: Food insecurity prevalence in Washington County, TN is 14.3% yet 61% of SNAP eligible residents are food insecure. Food insecurity is associated with inadequate consumption of fruits and vegetables, as well as increased risk of chronic disease. Tennessee ranks 47th in the Nation with only 6.7% consuming the recommended fruits and vegetable intake. The Farmacy Pilot Program was developed to encourage increased consumption of produce and to reduce food insecurity among SNAP recipients. Methods: This program provided vouchers to SNAP recipients and their families to buy fresh fruits and vegetables at the farmers market and in the grocery store as a monthly prescription. Participants were recruited from a clinic and two community centers in Washington County. Participants were given $28 - $112 a month depending on household size. Participants were required to attend at least two nutrition classes. Baseline and 6-month follow up assessments were done of food intake patterns among 29 participants, and focus groups were held (n= 11) and a total of 22 interviews conducted. Mixed methods approach was used for analysis: survey data was analyzed on SPSS and thematic analysis conducted for the qualitative data. Results: Major themes that emerged were: decreased cost of produce, increased positive perception of fruits and vegetables, improved perception of their personal health after change in diet, and increased utilization of farmers markets. Barriers identified were cultural and language hurdles, market variability in cost and quality of produce, and transportation. Survey findings included increased intake of green vegetables (t= -2.13, p =.042). Other findings lacked statistical power to detect significance yet were of clinical significance: improvements in frequency of produce consumption, produce variety, and a reduction in food insecurity. Discussion: Providing additional funds targeted on fresh produce can increase food security and increased quantity, frequency and variety of fruits and vegetables consumed. Promoting utilization of farmers market offers a promising avenue for increased consumption of fresh produce and improved social connectedness in the community.

SNAP25 (Synaptosomal-Associated Protein of 25 kDa; part of the SNARE complex) is involved in the docking and fusion of synaptic vesicles in presynaptic neurons necessary for the regulation of neurotransmitter release, as well as in axonal growth and synaptic plasticity. In humans, different single nucleotide polymorphisms of SNAP25 have repeatedly been associated with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Thus, in this study heterozygous Snap25 knockout mice were investigated as a model of ADHD. Heterozygous (+/-) Snap25 knockout mice as well as their wild-type (+/+) littermates were reared under control conditions or underwent a Maternal Separation (MS) procedure. Starting at the age of 2 months, mice were tested for locomotor activity in a repeated long-term Open Field (OF) task, for attention deficits and impulsive behavior in the 5 Choice Serial Reaction Time Task (5CSRTT), for anxiety-like behavior in the Light-Dark Box (LDB) and for depression-like behavior in the Porsolt Forced Swim Test (FST). The brains of these mice were subsequently tested for the expression of several ADHD related genes in a quantitative Real-Time PCR (qRT-PCR) study. Another group of female mice (+/+; +/-) underwent a one hour OF test after oral administration of 45 mg/kg Methylphenidate (MPH) or placebo. To find an optimized dosage for this MPH challenge, a pilot study was performed. Wild-type C57BL/6 mice were tested in a long-term OF with several dosages of MPH both intraperitoneally (i.p.) and orally. The brains of these animals were afterwards investigated for neurotransmitter concentrations. In this pilot study the dosages of MPH that were similarly behaviorally effective without causing symptoms of overdosing were 7.5-15 mg/kg intraperitoneally and 30-60 mg/kg orally. However, even though it was possible to find intraperitoneal and oral doses that correlate behaviorally, the neurochemistry was mostly different. In the study on Snap25-deficient mice, unstressed controls showed a hyperactive phenotype in the second of two long-term OF sessions (60 min) spaced three weeks apart. Considering all groups, there was a significant interaction of stress and genotype in the second session, with animals subjected to MS being overall hyperactive with no genotype differences. In the training phase of the 5CSRTT only effects of stress were found, with MS animals finding and consuming fewer rewards. In the single test trial, several genotype effects became apparent, with tendencies for the number of correct nose pokes and the number of rewards eaten, and a significant effect for the number of rewards eaten directly after the correct response. In all of these variables +/- mice performed worse than their wild-type littermates. In the LDB +/- mice entered the lit compartment of the arena earlier than the controls, thus showing attenuated anxiety-like behavior. Regarding depressive-like behavior in the FST, male +/- mice spent significantly less time struggling than male +/+ mice. In the gene expression study, +/- mice had lower expression levels of Maoa and Comt, and higher expression levels of Nos1 than wild-types. Finally, the locomotor activity response to MPH was exaggerated in +/- mice as compared to controls. Heterozygous Snap25 knockout mice show some of the behavioral characteristics of ADHD, as for example a mild hyperactivity in a familiar environment, difficulties in the correct execution of a given task and even some behavior that can be interpreted as delay aversion. Additionally, expression levels of three ADHD related genes were changed in these animals. Although the exaggerated locomotor activity response to MPH is not to be expected of an ADHD model, the difference in the response between +/+ and +/- mice nonetheless implicates a potential dysfunction of the brain dopaminergic system. / SNAP25 (Synaptosomal assoziiertes Protein, 25 kDa; Teil des SNARE Komplexes) ist an der Fusion von synaptischen Vesikeln mit der präsynaptischen Zellmembran beteiligt, und somit notwendig für die Regulation der Neurotransmitter-Ausschüttung. Außerdem wird eine wichtige Funktion bei dem Wachstum von Axonen und synaptischer Plastizität diskutiert. In Humanstudien wurden wiederholt verschiedene Einzelnukleotid-polymorphismen von SNAP25 mit Aufmerksamkeitsdefizit- / Hyperaktivitätssyndrom (ADHS) assoziiert. In der vorliegenden Studie wurden heterozygote Snap25 knockout Mäuse als Modell für ADHS untersucht. Heterozygote (+/-) Snap25 knockout Mäuse und ihre wildtypischen Wurfgeschwister wurden unter Kontrollbedingungen großgezogen oder einer maternalen Separation (MS) unterzogen. Beginnend im Alter von etwa 2 Monaten wurden diese Mäuse verschiedenen Verhaltenstests unterzogen: in einem wiederholten Langzeit-Open-Field (OF) Test wurde Aktivität untersucht, Aufmerksamkeitsdefizite und Impulsivität mit dem 5 Choice Serial Reaction Time Task (5CSRTT), angst-ähnliches Verhalten in der Light-Dark Box (LDB) und depressions-ähnliches Verhalten im Porsolt Forced Swim Test (FST). Die Gehirne dieser Mäuse wurden anschließend auf die Expression verschiedener ADHS bezogener Gene in einer quantitativen Real-Time-PCR (qRT-PCR) untersucht. Eine zusätzliche Gruppe weiblicher Mäuse (+/+; +/-) durchlief einen einstündigen OF Test nach oraler Gabe von 45 mg/kg Methylphenidat (MPH) oder Placebo. Um eine optimale Dosierung für MPH in diesem Experiment zu finden, wurde eine Pilotstudie durchgeführt. Hierbei wurden wildtypische C57/BL6 Mäuse in einem Langzeit OF Test mit Gabe unterschiedlicher Dosierungen von MPH, sowohl oral als auch intraperitoneal (i.p.), untersucht. Im Anschluss wurden die Gehirne dieser Tiere auf Neurotransmitter-konzentration geprüft. Diese Pilotstudie ergab als optimale Dosierungen von MPH auf Verhaltensebene 7.5-15 mg/kg i.p. und 30-60 mg/kg oral. Allerdings waren die neurochemischen Effekte der beiden unterschiedlichen Applikationsarten größtenteils verschieden. In der Snap25 Studie zeigten ungestresste Kontroll-Tiere einen leicht hyperaktiven Phänotyp in dem zweiten von zwei Langzeit-Open-Field Tests (60 min) im Abstand von 3 Wochen. Bei Betrachtung aller Gruppen ergab sich auch eine signifikante Interaktion von Stress und Genotyp in der zweiten Testung, und zwar dahingehend, dass MS Tiere grundsätzlich aktiveres Verhalten zeigten, ohne Genotypen-Unterschiede. In der Anfangsphase des 5CSRTT lagen nur signifikante Haupteffekte für Stress vor, gestresste Tiere hatten größere Probleme im Meistern der Aufgabe als Wildtypen. Erst im sogenannten Test-Trial am Ende der Versuchsreihe ergaben sich signifikante Haupteffekte für den Genotyp. Heterozygote Snap25 knockout Mäuse zeigten beispielsweise weniger korrekte Reaktionen und konsumierten auch weniger Belohnungspellets direkt im Anschluss an eine korrekte Reaktion als Wildtypen. In der LDB brauchten +/- Mäuse wiederum weniger Zeit als Wildtypen, um den erleuchteten Teil der Arena zu betreten, und zeigten dadurch ein reduziertes Angst-ähnliches Verhalten. Im Gegensatz dazu ergab sich ein erhöht Depressions-ähnliches Verhalten für männliche heterozygote Snap25 knockout Mäuse im FST. Auf der Genexpressions-Ebene hatten +/- Mäuse niedrigere Expressionslevels von Maoa und Comt und höhere Expressionslevels von Nos1 als Wildtypen. Abschließend zeigte sich eine erhöhte Reaktion auf MPH bei heterozygoten Mäusen. Zusammenfassend zeigen heterozygote Snap25 knockout Mäuse einige Charakteristika von ADHS auf Verhaltensebene, wie zum Beispiel eine leichte Hyperaktivität in bekannter Umgebung, Schwierigkeiten im Erlernen einer gestellten Aufgabe und sogar Verhaltensweisen, die auf eine Abneigung gegenüber Verzögerungen hindeuten. Zusätzlich kommt es aufgrund des Knockouts zu veränderten Expressionslevels verschiedener ADHS assoziierter Gene. Auch wenn die erhöhte Verhaltensreaktion von +/- Mäusen auf MPH nicht die erwartete Reaktion eines ADHS Modells darstellt, deutet sie dennoch auf ein Ungleichgewicht des dopaminergen Systems im Gehirn hin, das bei ADHS eine wichtige Rolle spielt.

Le trafic rétrograde permet le transport des protéines de la membrane plasmique vers le réticulum endoplasmique, via l'appareil de Golgi, évité la dégradation des lysosomes. Des études antérieures ont montré que le transport rétrograde est crucial pour les fonctions cellulaires telles que la signalisation, l'homéostasie ionique, et l'établissement de gradients du morphogène Wnt. Par ailleurs, le transport rétrograde joue un rôle essentiel dans l'internalisation cellulaire des facteurs pathogènes comme les toxines protéiques et les protéines de virus. Toutefois, la liste actuelle des protéines cargos est limitée, et il est probable que de nombreuses fonctions cellulaires du transport rétrograde restent encore à découvrir. De toute évidence, un fort besoin existe pour une caractérisation plus poussée de cette voie de transport. Dans cette étude, quatre différentes approches protéomiques ont été développées visant à identifier les protéines membranaires prenant la route du transport rétrograde: SNAP-tag, sulfatation, la FKBP, et la streptavidine. Parmi ceux-ci, l'approche SNAP-tag s'est avéré être la stratégie la plus efficace pour identifier les candidats du fret de la voie rétrograde. Cette stratégie est basée sur la modification covalente du protéome de la membrane plasmique avec un benzylguanine (BG) dérivés. Seules les protéines membranaires BG-taggées qui sont ensuite transportés par voie rétrograde peuvent coupler covalentement à une protéine de fusion de SNAP-tag localisée dans la TGN. L'approche a été validée, étape par étape, en utilisant une protéine cargo rétrograde bien étudiée, toxine Shiga sous-unité B (STxB). Nous avons pu montrer que les STxB peuvent être capturés et identifiées par l'approche SNAP-tag. Par ailleurs, couplé à la LC-MS, les candidats des nouvelle protéines de la voie rétrograde ont été identifiés. Les trois autres approches ont guidé notre choix vers la stratégie la plus efficace en protéomique, en apportant des possibilités d'expérimentation et de défauts dans les domaines de la chimie organique et en biologie cellulaire. Généralement, ce travail de thèse a permis de développer une nouvelle stratégie protéomique qui pourraient être appliquée pour identifier les nouvelles candidats de la route rétrograde. Nous avons mis au point une approche dynamique en protéomique qui complète la protéomique traditionnelle. Par ailleurs, le concept d'utiliser des outils chimiques pour étudier le transport rétrograde peut également être appliqué à d'autres voies d'endocytose.

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<p>The focus of this essay is on examining the meanings of the <em>onomatopoeia</em> (sound imitating words) <em>snap, crack</em> and <em>pop</em>. Previous studies on onomatopoeia and sound symbolism are used to define the terms and create a model for an alternative categorization of these meanings. This model is then applied in a corpus study, conducted on the COCA (Corpus Of Contemporary American English) and BYU-BNC (The British National Corpus) corpora, to find a way to more accurately describe the meanings and functions of these words.  For this purpose the context in which <em>snap, crack</em> and<em> pop</em> are used is also addressed by observing how frequently they occur in formal and informal texts and which adjectives and adverbs frequently modify them. In the study it was discovered that these three words took on many different meanings that would be hard to list separately in a dictionary. These meanings did follow a pattern linked to the properties associated with the word. The study found <em>snap, crack and pop</em> to be informal words with a tendency to add emotion or effect to a statement. It is therefore concluded that sorting onomatopoeia by sound and non sound-related meaning and describing the informal characteristics of these words leads to a greater understanding of how they are used.</p><p> </p><p>Keywords: Arbitrariness, <em>crack</em>, emotive, ideophones, mimetics, mimes, non-arbitrariness, onomatopoeia, phenomimes, phonomimes, <em>pop</em>, psychomimes, register, semantics, <em>snap</em>, sound symbolism and style.</p>

Snap bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) production by large scale commercial producers in Ethiopia is under intensive production and relies on high rates of nitrogen (N) fertilizer and irrigation during the dry season. Despite increasing interest to produce this crop, small scale farmers cannot afford the high cost of N fertilizer. Field and greenhouse experiments were conducted to test snap bean production under a low input production system better suited to small scale resource limited farmers. Field experiments were conducted in 2011 and 2012 under rain fed conditions, and in 2012 under irrigation, at three locations (Debre Zeit, Hawassa, Ziway) representing different climate zones in Ethiopia. This experiment used three N treatments: 0 and 100 kg N ha-1, and inoculation with Rhizobium etli [HB 429], and eight cultivars: Andante, Boston Contender Blue, Lomami, Melkassa 1, Melkassa 3, Paulista and Volta. The general objective of the field experiment was to determine the potential of snap bean production under a low input production system using rhizobium inoculation as the nitrogen source, and use rain fed conditions. Results obtained indicated that rhizobial inoculation and applied inorganic N increased on average the marketable pod yield of snap bean under rain fed conditions by 18 % and 43%, respectively. Nodulation and subsequent N2 fixation was not effective in improving yield or other traits of snap bean pod under irrigation, although applied N increased marketable yield by 33%. Melkassa 1 was the most suitable cultivar for a reduced input production system due to its successful nodulation characteristics, greatest N2 fixation levels and consistently good performance across locations under rain fed conditions. Commercial cultivars possessed the best pod quality characteristics and they yielded better under irrigation. Cultivars interacted with locations to affect pod traits including total soluble solids and concentrations of protein, calcium, and potassium under rain fed conditions. Snap bean cultivrs produced at Debre Zeit and Hawassa were similar in marketable yield and several other traits particularly under rain fed conditions. Zinc (Zn) concentration in pods was greatest at Hawassa both under rain fed and irrigated conditions. Conditions at Debre Zeit were the most conducive for supporting biological N2 fixation for snap bean production. The eight cultivars were also used for a greenhouse study that was evaluated treatments of drought stress of 50% field capacity (50% FC) during the vegetative (V4.4), flowering (R6) and pod formation (R7) developmental stages. Our result showed that drought stresses during reproductive stages (R6 and R7) were the most sensitive stages in deteriorating the quality of snap bean pods. Drought stress increased protein, phosphorus and Zn concentrations but it reduced iron concentration in snap bean pods. All cultivars had a similar response to drought stress. A second greenhouse experiment was conducted to test foliar application of growth regulators: the control, 10-5 M and 10-4 M concentrations of each of abscisic acid (ABA), kinetin and salicylic acid (SA); and two concentrations of yeast extract (4 g l-1 and 8 g l-1), under drought (50% FC) stressed and unstressed conditions. Foliar application of SA on snap bean under greenhouse conditions reduced the impact of drought stress, particularly the pod quality parameters: marketable yield, pod curving, texture and appearance of snap bean pods. However, application of ABA, kinetin and SA reduced pod quality of snap bean under unstressed conditions. In conclusion, pod yield improvement could be achieved by a N2 fixation system under rain fed conditions, which is more sustainable than N fertilizer inputs. Pod quality was also adequate for commercial export production. Rhizobium inoculant can therefore be used as an alternative N source, particularly under low input production system for resource-limited small-scale snap bean producers.

Despite heightened interest in creating local food systems that enhance health of ecologies, economies, and all members of communities, the public space of farmers' markets is far less than inherently equitable. This is particularly concerning given America's unprecedented crisis of food hardship and related disease, which disproportionately affects lower income populations. This research addresses the social justice implications of SNAP (food stamp) operations for locally oriented food systems. Pioneering practices of three of Florida's SNAP-authorized farmers' markets, and the attitudes and behaviors of one-hundred-seventy-six market patrons, were explored through customer surveys, market manager interviews, and environmental assessments. Qualitative and quantitative results uncovered associations between SNAP at the farmers' market and heightened embeddedness. This work advances the embeddedness concept by applying it to the understudied population of lesser advantaged consumers for which the interplay of marketness and embeddedness is particularly relevant to food purchasing decisions. Qualitative results showed success in SNAP operations centered on extending the reach of healthy foods to greater share of community, enhancing local farm income, and repositioning farmers' markets from their reputation as exclusive and expensive. Despite being heterogeneous place-making spaces with unique socio-cultural qualities, the markets shared commonality in their EBT operations and strong mission to serve the local SNAP population. Nonetheless, capacity for implementing and sustaining SNAP operations appears contingent upon innovative strategies and long-range synergistic efforts. Quantitative results uncovered several benefits in attaching SNAP to farmers' markets: expanded diversity of patron demographics, strengthened market-shopping behavior, diminished tension between economic and non-economic in food valuation, and fortification of the market as a social space for effecting change. Much remains to be understood regarding consumer values tied to local food systems, and the impact of SNAP operations on embedded market exchange. Hence, it is premature to predict whether SNAP operations will indeed enable farmers' markets to serve as a transformative mechanism for addressing the social justice arm of sustainability in the developing, alternative food system. Nonetheless, the discoveries made herein hint at the viability for SNAP to better position farmers' markets aiming to strengthen food system justice; and in so doing, bolster the role of farmers' markets in helping communities move towards their sustainability objectives.

January of 2010 brought record-breaking cold temperatures to Florida. Such freeze events can upset vulnerable populations of marine life and other species that rely on stable water temperatures. Sea turtles are one group of species that are particularly susceptible to abrupt drops in water temperature. When water temperatures drop below 10°C, a mass hypothermic stunning, or cold-stunning, event for sea turtles can be expected, with many debilitated turtles washing onshore with a very limited time window to be rehabilitated (Foley et al. 2007). The species of sea turtle that appears to cold-stun with the most frequency is the green turtle, especially juveniles. The green turtle represented the vast majority of marine turtles that were rescued during the 2010 cold-stun event. Therefore, accurate weather pattern recognition of marine cold snaps, or freezes, can alert sea turtle rescue groups and rehabilitation facilities in advance of any event, improving their readiness and response times, and ultimately preventing population declines. The proposed research fills this need by providing a qualitative analysis of select years for comparable atmospheric processes that could result in moderate to severe hypothermic stunning events. The 2010 event, along with other significant events, were examined using in situ air temperature, water temperature and wind data near two locations in Florida where hypothermic stunning events occurred: St. Joseph Bay and Mosquito Lagoon. These atmospheric parameters were represented graphically, depicting how each variable contributed to shaping an event. Cold stunning events were found to be primarily driven by frigid air temperatures and a subsequent decrease in water temperatures. Differences between the two event classifications, moderate and severe, are contingent upon the duration of the cold spell, not necessarily how quickly the water temperature dropped below the 10°C threshold value. Results suggest that repeated, quick exposure to cold air temperatures may influence the severity of a hypothermic stunning event. This research could be utilized in the formation of a forecasting model or strategy to efficiently alert the Florida Sea Turtle Stranding and Salvage Network (STSSN) to a potential sharp drop in water temperatures and, consequently, many debilitated sea turtles.