The goal of this dissertation was to examine how people pursue their personal goals in the context of an intimate relationship. Two studies were conducted; a daily diary study of dating partners’ joint activities and a longitudinal study of newly dating couples. In the daily diary study, people reported on their daily joint activities with their dating partners regarding whether their goals were met and how they were feeling during the given activity. The results showed that when people’s goals were met in an activity, their partners were able to accurately perceive that their goals were being met. However, when their goals were not met in the activity, their partners’ accuracy regarding their goals was only at chance levels. The partners’ overall levels of goal congruence did not predict the proportion of goal-congruent activities the partners participated in. However, the partners’ level of goal congruence predicted increases in life satisfaction, relationship commitment, and relationship satisfaction, as well as decreases in negative affect over time. In the longitudinal study, newly dating couples filled out measures of their goals, well-being, and relationship quality during their initial session. Three months later, the couples filled out measures of these same constructs again and answered questions about the goals that they reported pursuing during their initial session. Results showed that concurrently, the partners’ levels of goal congruence were associated with greater ability to make goal progress and higher relationship satisfaction, both of which, in turn, were associated with higher subjective well-being. Longitudinally, initial levels of goal congruence did not predict changes in goal progress and relationship quality over time. However, analysis of the individual goals indicated that people adjusted their goal pursuits based on the level of goal conflict between their own goals and their partners’ goals, such that people were more likely to stop pursuing or devalue goals that conflicted with their partners’ goals over time. Furthermore, the tendency to adjust goals over time was associated with increasing relationship commitment. The results of these studies show that conflict between relationship partners’ goals has important consequences for their relationship, goal progress, and personal well-being.

Empathy varies with similarity and familiarity of the other. Since outgroups are seen as dissimilar to the self, empathy might be restricted to the ingroup. We looked at two neural correlates of empathy: mirror neuron system activation as indicated by electroencephalographic mu suppression and prefrontal alpha asymmetry. Non black participants watched videos of ingroup and outgroup members acting and expressing emotions, and then acted and experienced emotions themselves. Due to methodological problems, mirror neuron system activation was not obtained. However, anterior asymmetries indicated avoidance motivation during the experience of sadness and the mere observation of sad ingroup members while participants did not show anterior asymmetry when observing the black outgroup. These findings suggest that empathy is bounded to a closed circle of similar others.

The present study explored the influence of survivor weight and participant gender, rape myth acceptance and anti-fat attitudes on perceptions of sexual assault. Using an online survey tool, participants (N = 413) read a vignette describing a hypothetical sexual assault scenario and completed several self-report questionnaires. Generalized linear model analyses revealed that participants were more likely to hold the survivor responsible, excuse the perpetrator’s actions, and respond more negatively toward the survivor and more positively toward the perpetrator when the survivor was depicted as thin versus overweight. Interactions were found between rape myth acceptance and survivor weight, gender and survivor weight, and gender and anti-fat attitudes, for certain dependent variables. In addition, men and those with higher levels of rape myth acceptance and anti-fat attitudes were found to make more negative evaluations of the survivor and more positive evaluations of the perpetrator. Recommendations for future research and interventions are discussed.

Empathy varies with similarity and familiarity of the other. Since outgroups are seen as dissimilar to the self, empathy might be restricted to the ingroup. We looked at two neural correlates of empathy: mirror neuron system activation as indicated by electroencephalographic mu suppression and prefrontal alpha asymmetry. Non black participants watched videos of ingroup and outgroup members acting and expressing emotions, and then acted and experienced emotions themselves. Due to methodological problems, mirror neuron system activation was not obtained. However, anterior asymmetries indicated avoidance motivation during the experience of sadness and the mere observation of sad ingroup members while participants did not show anterior asymmetry when observing the black outgroup. These findings suggest that empathy is bounded to a closed circle of similar others.

The present study explored the influence of survivor weight and participant gender, rape myth acceptance and anti-fat attitudes on perceptions of sexual assault. Using an online survey tool, participants (N = 413) read a vignette describing a hypothetical sexual assault scenario and completed several self-report questionnaires. Generalized linear model analyses revealed that participants were more likely to hold the survivor responsible, excuse the perpetrator’s actions, and respond more negatively toward the survivor and more positively toward the perpetrator when the survivor was depicted as thin versus overweight. Interactions were found between rape myth acceptance and survivor weight, gender and survivor weight, and gender and anti-fat attitudes, for certain dependent variables. In addition, men and those with higher levels of rape myth acceptance and anti-fat attitudes were found to make more negative evaluations of the survivor and more positive evaluations of the perpetrator. Recommendations for future research and interventions are discussed.

People engage in a constant and reflexive process of categorizing others according to their race, gender, age or other salient social category. Decades of research have shown that social categorization often elicits stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination. Social perception is complicated by the fact that people have multiple social identities and self-categorization with these identities can shift from one situation to another, coloring perceptions and evaluations of the self and others. This dissertation provides evidence that self-categorization with a novel group can override ostensible stable and pervasive racial biases in memory and evaluation and examines the neural substrates that mediate these processes. Experiment 1 shows that self-categorization with a novel mixed-race group elicited liking for ingroup members, regardless of race. This preference for ingroup members was mediated by the orbitofrontal cortex – a region of the brain linked to subjective valuation. Participants in novel groups also had greater fusiform and amygdala activity to novel ingroup members, suggesting that these regions are sensitive to the current self-categorization rather than features associated with race. Experiment 2 shows that preferences for ingroup members are evoked rapidly and spontaneously, regardless of race, indicating that ingroup bias can override automatic racial bias. Experiment 3 provides evidence that preferences for ingroup members are driven by ingroup bias rather than outgroup derogation. Experiment 4 shows that self-categorization increases memory for ingroup members eliminating the own-race memory bias. Experiment 5 provides direct evidence that fusiform activity to ingroup members is associated with superior memory for ingroup members. This study also shows greater amygdala activity to Black than White faces who are unaffiliated with either the ingroup or outgroup, suggesting that social categorization is flexible, shifting from group membership to race within a given social context. These five experiments illustrate that social perception and evaluation are sensitive to the current self-categorization – however minimal – and characterized by ingroup bias. This research also offers a relatively simple approach for erasing several pervasive racial biases. This multi-level approach extends several theories of intergroup perception and evaluation by making explicit links between self-categorization, neural processes, and social perception and evaluation.

Injury can be a very stressful experience for an elite athlete. To facilitate recovery, it is important to understand the psychological dynamics involved in the injury state. The purpose of this study was to explore the influence of the coach-athlete relationship on injury reporting decisions. Six varsity swimmers from a Canadian university were interviewed about their experiences of athletic injury and the coach-athlete relationship. The data also revealed additional salient factors in the athletes’ disclosure decisions. Interview transcripts were analyzed using a grounded theory approach and several key factors were found: identity, pain, frustration, coping, power, trust, caring/openness, investment, isolation, and atmosphere. These factors were organized into three categories: individual, coach-athlete, and team. The PI-AIR (Psychosocial Influences on Athletic Injury Reporting) model was developed to organize the categories into a single framework. The model is discussed in relation to current theory along with limitations of the study and future directions.

Before the 1990s controlled research using mock jurors consistently found black defendants guilty more often than white. However, more recently, research has generally failed to find this effect. One explanation is that prejudice has been reduced so much that there is no longer an effect. While there does seem to have been a reduction in overt prejudice, it is unlikely that it has decreased to the point that it does not affect verdicts. A more likely explanation is that strong social norms exist concerning prejudice which result in efforts to avoid being (or appearing) biased. Thus, when motivation to reduce prejudice is salient, mock jurors and perhaps real jurors will display little or no prejudice; but when motivation to reduce prejudice is not salient, decision-making becomes spontaneous and whatever prejudice does exist will affect decisions. In a series of 6 studies, race of defendant, race of witness, and the salience of the importance of being unbiased were varied. Results revealed a complex situation with many factors playing a part. Race of key alibi witness played a key role, with the white witness favoured, and the black witness mistrusted. Outcomes may be partially predicted based on Social Dominance Orientation (SDO). Those high in SDO treat incongruent defendant/witness race pairs more harshly than congruent race pairs. Modern apparently egalitarian outcomes are perhaps due to low prejudice participants’ bias in favour of black defendants while high prejudice participants were biased against black defendants – effectively cancelling out each others’ verdicts. Those low in SDO treat incongruent defendant/witness race pair too leniently as compared to congruent race pairs. When race is made salient, bias is reduced, and though the average results are still essentially egalitarian, these verdicts are more truly egalitarian – much fairer and less biased when considered at an individual level. These results also reinforce theories of dual process models of attitudes. Individuals may have common stereotype knowledge, but separate activation based on prejudice levels. Both high and low prejudiced individuals can control bias with the proper motivation.

Before the 1990s controlled research using mock jurors consistently found black defendants guilty more often than white. However, more recently, research has generally failed to find this effect. One explanation is that prejudice has been reduced so much that there is no longer an effect. While there does seem to have been a reduction in overt prejudice, it is unlikely that it has decreased to the point that it does not affect verdicts. A more likely explanation is that strong social norms exist concerning prejudice which result in efforts to avoid being (or appearing) biased. Thus, when motivation to reduce prejudice is salient, mock jurors and perhaps real jurors will display little or no prejudice; but when motivation to reduce prejudice is not salient, decision-making becomes spontaneous and whatever prejudice does exist will affect decisions. In a series of 6 studies, race of defendant, race of witness, and the salience of the importance of being unbiased were varied. Results revealed a complex situation with many factors playing a part. Race of key alibi witness played a key role, with the white witness favoured, and the black witness mistrusted. Outcomes may be partially predicted based on Social Dominance Orientation (SDO). Those high in SDO treat incongruent defendant/witness race pairs more harshly than congruent race pairs. Modern apparently egalitarian outcomes are perhaps due to low prejudice participants’ bias in favour of black defendants while high prejudice participants were biased against black defendants – effectively cancelling out each others’ verdicts. Those low in SDO treat incongruent defendant/witness race pair too leniently as compared to congruent race pairs. When race is made salient, bias is reduced, and though the average results are still essentially egalitarian, these verdicts are more truly egalitarian – much fairer and less biased when considered at an individual level. These results also reinforce theories of dual process models of attitudes. Individuals may have common stereotype knowledge, but separate activation based on prejudice levels. Both high and low prejudiced individuals can control bias with the proper motivation.

Injury can be a very stressful experience for an elite athlete. To facilitate recovery, it is important to understand the psychological dynamics involved in the injury state. The purpose of this study was to explore the influence of the coach-athlete relationship on injury reporting decisions. Six varsity swimmers from a Canadian university were interviewed about their experiences of athletic injury and the coach-athlete relationship. The data also revealed additional salient factors in the athletes’ disclosure decisions. Interview transcripts were analyzed using a grounded theory approach and several key factors were found: identity, pain, frustration, coping, power, trust, caring/openness, investment, isolation, and atmosphere. These factors were organized into three categories: individual, coach-athlete, and team. The PI-AIR (Psychosocial Influences on Athletic Injury Reporting) model was developed to organize the categories into a single framework. The model is discussed in relation to current theory along with limitations of the study and future directions.