HIV incidence continues to rise in the population of gay and bisexual men (Joint United Nations Program on HIV/AIDS, 2008), a high-risk group due to the complexity of promoting sexual behavior change on an enduring basis. In the present study, interview data from fifteen self-identified gay or bisexual men living in an urban Canadian city was analyzed in order to determine the most salient psychosocial factors in decision-making leading to safe sexual choices, and the psychological implications of these factors for the mental health and well-being of participants. Results suggest three core factors are most relevant to sexual decision-making for gay/bisexual men: self-efficacy, sexual communication and/or negotiation, and individual assessment of risk. A conceptual model of factors influencing sexual decision-making is presented. These results are discussed in terms of their implications for future HIV prevention interventions and the clinical practice of counselling psychology with gay and bisexual male clients.

This thesis is based on an ethnographic study conducted in a split grade five and six classroom in Toronto during the 1985/86 academic year. Data were collected through participatory observation, as well as through individual and focus group interviews. A group of eight activist African-Canadian high school students, as well as 26 Euro- Canadian “drop-backs” were also interviewed. The time during which I conducted the study was a period of intensive education activism of parents and the community in Toronto. I was interested in determining whether or not, and this activism was reflected at the school level, and if it was reflected, how. I also wanted to examine whether or not the historically supportive auxiliary role that parents played during this period was elevated to more substantive and meaningful active involvement in the education of their children during the last half of the 1980s. This study shows that activities in the classroom were driven by pre-packaged curriculum materials and were implemented with very few modifications. Coupled with teacher-centred practice, this closed the door for any diversifying opportunities that could have found their way into the classroom, not only from the homes of the children and the school community, but also from critics of the use of prepackaged material and, most importantly, from the students themselves. Furthermore, teacher-centred classroom discourse pushed students to develop a cynical attitude towards schooling. Having no say in what or how they were taught provided the children with few choices but to develop a coping mechanism of passive resistance. Their short-term survival strategies included appearing as though they were striding along, but not embracing their school experiences fully. By the same token, they were not challenged to think critically, to evaluate or to problem-solve. A link was also established between the students’ passive resistance at the elementary level with ‘fading out’ or ‘dropping out’ and successful resistance at the high school level.

HIV incidence continues to rise in the population of gay and bisexual men (Joint United Nations Program on HIV/AIDS, 2008), a high-risk group due to the complexity of promoting sexual behavior change on an enduring basis. In the present study, interview data from fifteen self-identified gay or bisexual men living in an urban Canadian city was analyzed in order to determine the most salient psychosocial factors in decision-making leading to safe sexual choices, and the psychological implications of these factors for the mental health and well-being of participants. Results suggest three core factors are most relevant to sexual decision-making for gay/bisexual men: self-efficacy, sexual communication and/or negotiation, and individual assessment of risk. A conceptual model of factors influencing sexual decision-making is presented. These results are discussed in terms of their implications for future HIV prevention interventions and the clinical practice of counselling psychology with gay and bisexual male clients.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Counseling and Educational Psychology / Fred O. Bradley / The purpose of the current study was to identify if any significant relationships between inspiration, temperament, and positive affect existed. The dependent variable was inspiration, which was measured by the Inspiration Scale (IS). Temperament was measured by the Keirsey Temperament Sorter II and positive affect by the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS). One hundred forty-five students attending a large Midwestern university and small community college participated. Initially, participants completed the Keirsey Temperament Sorter II online. The IS and PANAS were administered in the student’s classroom. The data were consequently analyzed to determine if there was a correlation between inspiration and temperament, inspiration and positive affect, and inspiration and the combined effects of temperament and positive affect. The results were mixed: 1. No relationship between inspiration and temperament was discovered. ANOVA results indicated that mean inspiration scores for each temperament did not vary significantly. 2. A relationship was identified between inspiration and positive affect. Regression results suggested a positive linear relationship between inspiration and positive affect scores. 3. When inspiration was correlated with positive affect and temperament combined, no relationship was discovered. A 2 x 4 ANOVA showed no correlation between the variables. The implications these results have on psychology and counseling are discussed, along recommendations for future research. Additionally, limitations of the study, such as inherent risks associated with using self-report measures, are mentioned. The study concludes with a discussion of how future research can investigate inspiration, temperament, and positive affect.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Counseling and Educational Psychology / Fred O. Bradley / Statistics published in 2003 indicate that over 67% of community college students are first-generation students, students from families where neither parent has graduated from college. First-generation students are disproportionately represented among those who terminate college prior to graduation. This study explores role theory as a model for understanding and addressing the problems of first-generation students. Survey questions linked to role commitment involving intentions to work, commute and participate in campus activities were administered to 257 first-time full-time students: 182 students were first-generation and 75 were non-first-generation. Analysis using the Mann-Whitney U Test indicated first-generation students had significantly less commitment to the role of student. Later, first-generation students were divided into "successful" and "unsuccessful" groups based on their two semester grade point average. The Mann-Whitney U Test failed to demonstrate a significant difference between "successful" and "unsuccessful" first-generation students. The ordinal score responses of first-generation students to the three survey questions were then used as categories and grade point averages of the students in those categories were compared using ANOVA procedures. The results were mixed but suggested further investigation was warranted. The study was concluded with interviews of ten "successful" first-generation students. The interview results were supportive of conclusions drawn from role theory underscoring the value of further studies with larger sample sizes and modifications in methodology suggested by this study.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Counseling and Educational Psychology / Stephen L. Benton / This study examined the effects of types of therapist disclosure and their interaction with various combinations of observer, therapist, and client gender-dyads on observer ratings of the working alliance. Participants were 357 undergraduate students (60.2% women) from two Midwestern universities who were randomly assigned to one of 12 conditions. Each condition required students to read one of 12 printed scenarios differentiated by all possible combinations of three types of therapist self-disclosure (similar, dissimilar, no disclosure), two levels of therapist gender, and two levels of client gender. Students rated the scenarios on the perceived working alliance between the therapist and the client, using the 36-item Working Alliance Inventory-Observer (WAI-O). A 2 (student sex) x 2 (therapist sex) x 2 (client sex) x 3 (disclosure type) ANOVA revealed no significant effects on the WAI-O total scale score. In addition, no main effects or interactions were found on WAI-O total scale when male and female student scores were pooled. A 2 x 2 x 2 x 3 MANOVA performed on the WAI-O subscales indicated female observers perceived a stronger client-therapist bond for similar than dissimilar disclosures with male clients. Female observers rated male clients with a stronger bond than female clients, but only in the similar disclosure condition. A main effect was also found for observer sex on the Task and Bond subscales. Although this study did not find gender of the observer, type of therapist disclosure, and the gender of the therapist and their client to influence overall working alliance ratings, results suggest that these factors have an impact on female observer ratings of the bond and task agreement between the therapist and their client. Specifically, two findings emerged: (a) women, not men, observed a stronger bond for male client recipients of similar versus dissimilar disclosure; (b) women, not men observed a stronger bond for male client versus female recipients of a therapist's similar disclosure. Results are discussed in terms of disclosure and gender research.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Special Education, Counseling and Student Affairs / Judith K. Hughey / Many efforts have been directed towards providing equitable access to higher education for youth from low-income, first-generation families. Despite gains, attendance and graduation rates from college are consistently lower for these students (U.S. Department of Education National Center for Education Statistics, 2012). A variety of initiatives have been implemented to support students' entry into college, persistence to graduation, and increased access to professional careers. One such program is Talent Search, which provides middle school students opportunities to achieve academic success and to become knowledgeable about college and career options. KU Talent Search offers a summer career camp as part of its programming. The Career Horizons Summer Program (CHSP) exists to help students between 6th and 7th grades explore career possibilities, build potential for success in academics and careers, and become more comfortable in a college environment (Dukstein, 2012b). This study examined beliefs about college and careers in a group of 52 students, as well as the impact of the CHSP on the intervention group. Educational aspirations and expectations, and career and college-going self-efficacy were assessed. It was predicted that participation in the camp would result in an increase in college-going and career self-efficacy. The study also provided additional insight into the construct of college-going self-efficacy. Using a quantitative comparison group design, data were collected from camp participants and from students who were eligible to participate but did not. Pre and posttest surveys assessed educational aspirations and expectations and included scales to measure career self-efficacy (Fouad & Smith, 1997) and college-going self-efficacy (Gibbons & Borders, 2010a). Educational aspirations and expectations were high in all participants and a bivariate correlation analysis revealed that career self-efficacy and college-going self-efficacy were highly correlated. Comparisons between the intervention and the comparison group suggested that the CHSP did have an impact on career and college self-efficacy. It is important to understand the characteristics of a successful college and career access program, and to identify interventions that are most impactful. The findings of this study add to understanding of one such intervention and may have implications for specific practices that can increase potential for college success.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Special Education, Counseling and Student Affairs / Judith Hughey / The purpose of this phenomenological research study was to describe and to understand the experience of being in a PhotoTherapy group for adolescent females in treatment for self-injurious behaviors. The research question was as follows: (1) What was the essence of the experience of a series of PhotoTherapy group sessions for female adolescents with a history of self-injurious behaviors? After the completion of two semi-structured interviews with 5 participants, the researcher acknowledged the emergence of four themes that expressed the essence of the experience of being a part of a PhotoTherapy group process as an adolescent female in treatment for self-injurious behaviors. The themes were the following: Self, Connection with others, Emotions, Motivations in treatment. These themes developed a description of the interactions, emotions, behaviors and thoughts that occurred throughout the group work process. Self-injury is a complex issue and the literature states a need for creative interventions. The study collaborated the needs in the field of self-injury treatment with the resources available from PhotoTherapy. The study gained perspective and understanding of how the experience of being in a PhotoTherapy group impacted the individual. In mental health and education, counselors can use the data and conclusions from this research to understand the use of PhotoTherapy group work with adolescent girls that self injure. The researcher concludes that counseling professionals have an understanding of creative interventions and the personal experiences endure with the use of creative interventions such as, PhotoTherapy to have a holistic perspective on treatment practices.

This work seeks to construct and implement in two Baptist churches a viable congregational model for doing youth ministry, which can be used to improve positive self-esteem in Black children, ages ten thru eighteen. Positive self-esteem is examined in the congregational settings by posing and answering six (6) questions: What is Self-Esteem? Who is God? Who am I? Who are you? Who are we in Christ? and What ought we do? These six (6) questions form the essence of positive self-esteem. The model uses family relationships between adult presenters and the intended youth, adult presentations on Christian identity and action in the congregation, field trips, Black history materials in the homes, and visual aids as the vehicles to accomplish the improvement in the positive self-esteem of the youth. The model responds to the threat to positive self-esteem of many of the youth as evidenced by racism and discrimination in American society, the presence of several indicators of negative or low self-esteem, problems in the very institutions that influence positive self-esteem, and adult perceptions of the social environment. It is based on the premise that the church must provide the family with the tools to help our children survive in this society. This will be accomplished by preparing our youth to affirm positive actions that build and affirm positive self-esteem and to reject the negative actions that counter it. This project seeks to use the extended family system and the conjugal family system of the children in their quest for positive self-esteem because of its potential as a positive influence. Finally, this work seeks to place the responsibility of the children in the hands of the entire church family, which is called to actively work to nurture them in this crucial and critical time in their lives.

This dissertation offers an interdisciplinary model of pastoral counseling with 'interdependence' as its organizing principle. This interdisciplinary model relies on the theological concept of Community, according to Howard Thurman, and the psychological issue of dependence as articulated in the Object Relations theory of W. R. D. Fairbairn. Interdependence as a norm for this interdisciplinary Community/Mature Dependence model of pastoral counseling is helpful in that it responds to a need in the field of pastoral counseling for relevant input concerning norms, values and criteria for effective pastoral counseling with persons, particularly those from bi-cultural communities, such as African Americans. In this respect, the African American cultural values of Collective Identity, Family life and Resiliency in Struggle and Suffering form an integral part of this interdisciplinary model. Interwoven with the theological and psychological concepts and the African American cultural values are the clinical cases of two African Americans, a female and a male. These concepts and the cultural values chosen to bring to bear on the counseling relations with these persons are especially helpful due to their focus on the value of communal interrelating and the processes of whole-making. Prominent issues raised in conjunction with the clinical cases are: (1) the fragmentation, splitting and distorted self images that can occur due to improper nurturing in childhood and/or as a result of racism and oppression, (2) the effects of racism and discrimination on personal and familial value systems, and (3) the pain and suffering caused by unresolved conflict involved in the status of being bi-cultural. Howard Thurman, as an African American theologian who, from outside the majority culture and some of its theoretical and cultural constrictions brings to this discussion his unique perspective of Community which grounds all persons and all dimensions of personhood in an Ultimate unity. Thurman, speaking with the insights of one who has suffered racial oppression and discrimination, lifts his voice of sensitive concern and caring to all persons bound in the human condition and outlines the task for the reconciliation of all of creation. Unity, Actualization of Potential, Love and Reconciliation are the four major components of Thurman's concept of Community addressed in this dissertation. My analysis also brings the object relations theory of W. R. D. Fairbairn into dialogue with Thurman, the cultural factors and the clinical data from the two case studies. Fairbairn, deviates from psychoanalytic tradition in that he formulated an alternative interpretation of the core of personality than that advocated by Sigmund Freud. Fairbairn's assertion is that the libidinal ego is first and foremost in need and in search of an satisfying object, i.e., a meaningful and positive relationship with another person. With the help of Thurman, Fairbairn, the clinical cases and African American cultural factors, I highlight the illusory or at best transient nature of independence and the process I demonstrate the need for an appreciation of the nature of dependency, particularly in the context of Interdependence. A three dimensional model of pastoral counseling is presented which elaborates upon the importance of (1) the client's historical situation and cultural values; (2) identification, a proper sense of self and differentiation; and, (3) shared suffering, actualization of potential and liberating and reconciling love.