Stress is a widespread phenomenon in the western society of these days. It is a risky factor for health and well-being of the majority of people. Based on these facts, it is the main subject for the field of "stress physiology" research, which aims to study processes occurring during stress response and tries to elucidate mechanisms leading to stress-induced health impairment. The first aim of this thesis was to describe effects of psycho-social stress on organism. The second aim was to find out if can stress applied in juvenile age affect the stress response in adulthood. If so, how is the role of glucocorticoid-metabolism enzyme 11β-HSD1 in this influence? To answer these questions, two different animal models inducing stress response in the laboratory rat were used. The first one is the model of mild social stress based on the resident-intruder paradigm. Our results show efficancy of this model. Fisher 344 male rats treated under this model for seven consecutive days show highly elevated plasma corticosterone concentrations and elevated expression of the glucocorticoid receptor gene in the pituitary. Behavioral analysis demonstrates a decreased social behavioral profile of the intruders, suggesting submisive social position of these animals in the resident-intruder paradigm. The second model used is...

Η παχυσαρκία και ειδικά η συσσώρευση σπλαχνικού λίπους αποτελεί σημαντικό προδιαθεσικό παράγοντα για την εκδήλωση μεταβολικού συνδρόμου. Οι μηχανισμοί που συνδέουν την κοιλιακή παχυσαρκία με τις μεταβολικές επιπλοκές δεν είναι γνωστοί, αλλά έχουν προταθεί διάφορες υποθέσεις. Μια εξ αυτών, πηγάζει από τις ομοιότητες ανάμεσα στο σύνδρομο Cushing και το μεταβολικό σύνδρομο σε παχύσαρκα άτομα και προτείνει ότι αυξημένη τοπική δράση γλυκοκορτικοειδών στο σπλαχνικό λιπώδη ιστό , λόγω αυξημένης μετατροπής της ανενεργής κορτιζόνης σε ενεργή κορτιζόλη μέσω του ενζύμου 11β- υδροξυστεροιειδική αφυδρογονάση τύπου 1 (11β-HSD-1) οδηγεί στην εκδήλωση του συνδρόμου. Η δική μας υπόθεση είναι η εξής: Μεταβολικό σύνδρομο εκδηλώνουν τα παχύσαρκα άτομα που έχουν αυξημένη έκφραση και δραστικότητα του ενζύμου 11β-HSD-1 στο σπλαχνικό λιπώδη ιστό, ενώ αυτά που δεν έχουν προστατεύονται από την εκδήλωση των μεταβολικών επιπλοκών της παχυσαρκίας. Θα μελετηθούν 40 συνολικά άτομα τα οποία θα χωρισθούν σε 4 ομάδες. 1η Ομάδα: 10 άτομα με φυσιολογικό σωματικό βάρος (ΔΜΣ 18.5-25) χωρίς Μεταβολικό Σύνδρομο 2η Ομάδα: 10 άτομα με σοβαρού βαθμού παχυσαρκία (ΔΜΣ>40) χωρίς μεταβολικό σύνδρομο 3η Ομάδα: 10 άτομα με σοβαρού βαθμού παχυσαρκία (ΔΜΣ>40) και μεταβολικό σύνδρομο. Τα κριτήρια του μεταβολικού συνδρόμου θα είναι αυτά που ορίζονται από τον οργανισμό National Cholesterol Education Program`s Adult Treatment Panel III report (NCEP/ ATP) III. Μεταβολικό σύνδρομο υφίσταται εάν πληρούνται 3 ή περισσότερα κριτήρια του πίνακα 1. 4η Ομάδα: 10 άτομα με σοβαρού βαθμού παχυσαρκία (ΔΜΣ>40), μεταβολικό σύνδρομο και σακχαρώδη διαβήτη τύπου 2. Στην συνέχεια τα άτομα αυτά θα υποβληθούν σε προγραμματισμένα βαριατρικά χειρουργεία από όπου θα ληφθούν διεγχειρητικά βιοψίες υποδορίου και σπλαχνικού λίπους. Θα γίνει απομόνωση RNA και στη συνέχεια ταυτοποίηση και ποσοτικοποίηση του mRNA του ενζύμου 11β HSD-1 με real time RT-PCR. Επίσης θα μελετηθεί η δραστικότητα του ενζύμου 11β HSD-1. Τα μέχρι στιγμής αποτελέσματα μας είναι περιορισμένα λόγω του ότι η συλλογή του υλικού δεν έχει ολοκληρωθεί, υπολείπονται 4 άτομα από την 3η και 4η ομάδα και δεν έχει γίνει RT-PCR σε όλους τους ασθενείς. Φαίνεται ότι υπάρχει τάση να υπερεκφράζεται το ένζυμο στους παχύσαρκους ασθενείς με μεταβολικό σύνδρομο και σακχαρώδη διαβήτη τύπου 2. Η μελέτη συνεχίζεται και ελπίζουμε ότι με την ολοκλήρωση της να αποδείξουμε την υπόθεση μας. / Obesity and especially visceral fat is a risk factor for the development of the metabolic syndrome. The mechanisms linking obesity and its metabolic complications remain elusive, though several hypotheses have been proposed. One hypothesis emerged from the similarities between syndrome Cushing and the metabolic syndrome. According to this hypothesis, increased action of glucocorticoids in the visceral fat, due to increased conversion of inactive cortisone to active cortisol via the enzyme 11β- hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 (11β-HSD-1) leads to the development of the metabolic syndrome. Our hypothesis is: Metabolic syndrome is present in the obeses with increased expression and activity of the enzyme 11β-HSD-1 to the visceral fat while those they do not have are protected from the metabolic complications. We study 40 individuals, divided in 4 groups. 1η Group: n ═ 10 with normal body mass index (BMI 18.5-25) without metabolic syndrome 2η Ομάδα: n ═ 10 with severe obesity (BMI >40) without metabolic syndrome 3η Ομάδα: n ═ 10 with severe obesity (BMI >40) with metabolic syndrome. 4η Ομάδα: n ═ 10 with severe obesity (BMI >40) with metabolic syndrome and diabetes type 2. All obese subjects will undergo bariatric surgery and we take biopsies from visceral and subcutaneous fat. We extract RNA and will be identification and qualification of the mRNA of the enzyme 11β HSD-1 with real time RT-PCR. Also we will study the activity of the enzyme 11β HSD-1. At the time present are results are inconclusive because the study is ongoing, however it seems that there is a trend of hyperexpression of the enzyme in the obese individuals with metabolic syndrome and diabetes type 2.

Bakgrund: Hormonella preventiva läkemedel för män är idag inte tillgängliga på marknaden, de enda tillgängliga preventivmedlen för manligt bruk är i dagsläget kondom och vasektomi som båda är icke-hormonella. Utbudet till kvinnor är desto fler, det första hormonella preventivmedlet till kvinnor godkändes redan på 1960-talet. Flera biverkningar har rapporterats sedan lansering. Vanligt förekommande är viktuppgång, illamående, minskad libido, akne och depression. På 1970-talet började studier utfärdas på manliga hormonella preventivmedel, trots det finns i dagsläget inget godkänt sådant på marknaden. Potentiella hormonella preventivmedel till män innehåller exogena androgener som monoterapi eller i kombination med progestiner. Målet för dessa preventivmedel är att hämma mannens spermatogenes. En normal spermiekoncentration består av ≥15 miljoner spermier/ml utlösning. För att uppnå ett preventivt skydd som är likvärdigt med kvinnliga preventivmedel bör spermiekoncentrationen vara ≤1 miljoner spermier/ml utlösning. Syfte: Syftet med det här litteraturarbetet var att undersöka effektiviteten och säkerheten av potentiella manliga hormonella preventivmedel. Metod: För att besvara frågeställningen genomfördes en litteraturstudie där sex stycken artiklar valdes ut och granskades. Samtliga artiklar hämtades från databasen PubMed. Av studierna som valdes var fem stycken randomiserade och dubbelblindade och en studie var enarmad. Samtliga sex studier undersökte effektivitet och säkerhet av hormonella preventivmedel avsedda för manligt bruk. Resultat: Samtliga studier visar att gonadotropinkoncentrationen hämmas vid användandet av hormonella preventivmedel. Biverkningar som angavs var milda i alla studier utom en. I en studie uppgavs åtta allvarliga biverkningar som ansågs ha en koppling till studiemedicinen. Slutsats: Samtliga manliga hormonella preventivmedel där exogena androgener används som monoterapi eller i kombination med progestiner hämmar follikelstimulerande hormon (FSH) och luteiniserande hormon (LH)effektivt och reversibelt. Vidare studier behöver göras som är längre än 28 dagar för att kontrollera hur de hormonella läkemedlen påverkar spermiekoncentrationen. Behandling i alla studier utom en gav inga allvarliga biverkningar, vilket indikerar att hormonella antikonceptionella läkemedel för män är säkert att använda. Biverkningar som förekommer för kvinnor var även vanliga för männen i studierna. Det föreligger dock flertalet allvarligare biverkningar vid kvinnligt användande. Längre studier med fler antal deltagare krävs för att undersöka biverkningar som manliga hormonella preventivmedel kan ge upphov till på längre sikt. / Background: Hormonal contraceptives for men are currently not available, the only available contraceptives for male use are currently condoms and vasectomy which are both non-hormonal. The supply for women is greater, the first hormonal contraceptive for women was approved as early as the 1960s. Several side effects have been reported since the launch. Common adverse events are weight gain, nausea, decreased libido, acne and depression. In the 1970s, studies began to be issued on male hormonal contraceptives, although there is currently no approved such product on the market. Potential hormonal contraceptives for men contain exogenous androgens as monotherapy or in combination with progestins. The goal of these contraceptives is to inhibit male spermatogenesis. A normal sperm concentration is ≥15 million spermatozoa / ml of ejaculation. To achieve contraceptive protection equivalent to that of female contraceptives, the sperm concentration should be ≤1 million spermatozoa / ml of ejaculation. Aim: The aim of this literature study was to investigate the efficacy and safety of potential male hormonal contraceptives. Method: To answer the study question, a literature study was conducted in which six articles were selected and reviewed. All articles were retrieved from the PubMed database. Of the studies selected, five were randomized and double-blind and one study was single-armed. All six studies examined the efficacy and safety of hormonal contraceptives intended for male use. Results: All studies included in this study show that gonadotropin levels are inhibited by the use of hormonal contraceptives. Adverse events reported were mild in all but one study which reported eight serious side effects that were thought to be related to themedication that was used in that specific study. Conclusion: All male hormonal contraceptives that uses exogenous androgens as monotherapy or in combination with progestins inhibit follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) effectively and reversibly. Further studies need to be done and these studies should preferably have a longer span than 28 days, to check how the hormonal drugs affect the sperm concentration. Treatment in all studies except one did not produce any serious side effects, indicating that hormonal contraceptives for men are safe to use. Side effects that occur in women were also common for men in these studies. However, there are several more serious side effects with female use. Longer studies with more participants are required to investigate side effects that male hormonal contraceptives may have on a long-time basis.

京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・論文博士 / 博士(農学) / 乙第12834号 / 論農博第2798号 / 新制||農||1026(附属図書館) / 学位論文||H26||N4857(農学部図書室) / 31372 / (主査)教授 栗原 達夫, 教授 植田 和光, 教授 平竹 潤 / 学位規則第4条第2項該当 / Doctor of Agricultural Science / Kyoto University / DFAM

L’activation du système rénine-angiotensine-aldostérone peut entraîner le développement d’une hypertension artérielle et de la fibrose cardiaque. Toutefois, au cours de la grossesse, malgré une hausse substantielle des niveaux d’aldostérone, ces effets délétères ne sont pas observés. L’aldostérone exerce ses effets via les récepteurs des minéralocorticoïdes, les MR, qui peuvent également lier le cortisol avec une affinité similaire. La régulation des niveaux locaux de ce glucocorticoïde par les 11β-hydroxystéroïde déshydrogénases (11β-HSD) est donc essentielle pour éviter une stimulation inappropriée des MR. Nous suggérons que, durant la grossesse, ces enzymes sont impliquées dans la protection de la mère et du foetus contre les niveaux élevés d’aldostérone et de cortisol. Notre hypothèse de travail est que les mécanismes d’adaptation qui prennent place au cours de la grossesse nécessitent des changements d’expression (ARNm et protéine) et d’activité des 11β-HSD spécifiques selon le tissu. Des rates Sprague-Dawley ont été sacrifiées aux jours 14, 17, 19 et 22 de gestation (terme = jour 23) et leurs organes ont été collectés. Dans le rein, les niveaux protéiques des 11β-HSD sont diminués en fin de gestation. Dans le placenta, on observe une importante chute de l’expression génique et protéique de la 11β-HSD1 au jour 17 tandis que la 11β-HSD2 y est augmentée. L’expression et l’activité de la 11β-HSD2 sont par la suite diminuées jusqu’à terme. Aucune différence significative n’est retrouvée dans le ventricule gauche cardiaque. En conclusion, nos résultats démontrent que la gestation est accompagnée d’importants changements dans le placenta, possiblement pour assurer un développement foetal adéquat, tandis que le rein et le coeur sont peu ou pas affectés. Des études plus approfondies sur l’expression des MR dans ces tissus nous aideront à mieux comprendre l’implication des 11β-HSD au fil de la gestation. / The activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system can lead to hypertension and cardiac fibrosis. However, despite a substantial elevation of aldosterone during pregnancy, those adverse effects are not observed. Aldosterone acts via the mineralocorticoid receptors (MR) which can also bind cortisol with a similar affinity. Regulation of the local levels of this glucocorticoid by the 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases (11β-HSD) is thus crucial to avoid overstimulation of MRs. We believe that these enzymes are involved in the maternal and fetal protections against the high levels of aldosterone and cortisol observed during pregnancy. We propose that the adaptative mechanisms occurring during normal pregnancy involve tissue-specific changes in the expression (mRNA and protein) and activity of both 11β-HSDs. Pregnant Sprague-Dawley rats were sacrified on day 14, 17, 19 or 22 of gestation (term = day 23) and their organs were collected. In the kidney, our results have shown that 11β-HSDs protein levels decrease in late gestation. In the placenta, a dramatic decrease of 11β-HSD1 mRNA and protein expressions is observed on day 17 while 11β-HSD2 levels are increased. Expression and activity of the 11β-HSD2 are then decreased up to day 22. No significant differences were detected in the left cardiac ventricle. In conclusion, our results demonstrate that gestation is associated with important modifications in the placenta, possibly to ensure a normal fetal growth, while expression in the kidney and the heart is barely changed. More studies on MR expression in those tissues will be required to better characterise the function of the 11β-HSDs throughout pregnancy.

This thesis examines the influence of stress on the activity of hippocampal CA1 area. The main task was to determine whether the stress load affects the changes of the local metabolism of glucocorticoids, and whether the levels of corticosteroid receptors in the CA1 hippocampus are modulated in response to stress. In order to answer these questions, the experiments were carried out using three different rat strains - Fisher, Lewis and Wistar which differ in their activities of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Our results demonstrate that stress has no effect on expression of MR mRNA. Conversely, stress reduces the levels of GR mRNA in CA1 area of the dorsal hippocampus. Moreover, we confirmed that the Lewis and Wistar rats didn't change metabolism of glucocorticoids after stress response. By the Fisher rats increased levels of 11β-HSD1 mRNA expression and therefore increased the metabolism of corticosterone.

L’activation du système rénine-angiotensine-aldostérone peut entraîner le développement d’une hypertension artérielle et de la fibrose cardiaque. Toutefois, au cours de la grossesse, malgré une hausse substantielle des niveaux d’aldostérone, ces effets délétères ne sont pas observés. L’aldostérone exerce ses effets via les récepteurs des minéralocorticoïdes, les MR, qui peuvent également lier le cortisol avec une affinité similaire. La régulation des niveaux locaux de ce glucocorticoïde par les 11β-hydroxystéroïde déshydrogénases (11β-HSD) est donc essentielle pour éviter une stimulation inappropriée des MR. Nous suggérons que, durant la grossesse, ces enzymes sont impliquées dans la protection de la mère et du foetus contre les niveaux élevés d’aldostérone et de cortisol. Notre hypothèse de travail est que les mécanismes d’adaptation qui prennent place au cours de la grossesse nécessitent des changements d’expression (ARNm et protéine) et d’activité des 11β-HSD spécifiques selon le tissu. Des rates Sprague-Dawley ont été sacrifiées aux jours 14, 17, 19 et 22 de gestation (terme = jour 23) et leurs organes ont été collectés. Dans le rein, les niveaux protéiques des 11β-HSD sont diminués en fin de gestation. Dans le placenta, on observe une importante chute de l’expression génique et protéique de la 11β-HSD1 au jour 17 tandis que la 11β-HSD2 y est augmentée. L’expression et l’activité de la 11β-HSD2 sont par la suite diminuées jusqu’à terme. Aucune différence significative n’est retrouvée dans le ventricule gauche cardiaque. En conclusion, nos résultats démontrent que la gestation est accompagnée d’importants changements dans le placenta, possiblement pour assurer un développement foetal adéquat, tandis que le rein et le coeur sont peu ou pas affectés. Des études plus approfondies sur l’expression des MR dans ces tissus nous aideront à mieux comprendre l’implication des 11β-HSD au fil de la gestation. / The activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system can lead to hypertension and cardiac fibrosis. However, despite a substantial elevation of aldosterone during pregnancy, those adverse effects are not observed. Aldosterone acts via the mineralocorticoid receptors (MR) which can also bind cortisol with a similar affinity. Regulation of the local levels of this glucocorticoid by the 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases (11β-HSD) is thus crucial to avoid overstimulation of MRs. We believe that these enzymes are involved in the maternal and fetal protections against the high levels of aldosterone and cortisol observed during pregnancy. We propose that the adaptative mechanisms occurring during normal pregnancy involve tissue-specific changes in the expression (mRNA and protein) and activity of both 11β-HSDs. Pregnant Sprague-Dawley rats were sacrified on day 14, 17, 19 or 22 of gestation (term = day 23) and their organs were collected. In the kidney, our results have shown that 11β-HSDs protein levels decrease in late gestation. In the placenta, a dramatic decrease of 11β-HSD1 mRNA and protein expressions is observed on day 17 while 11β-HSD2 levels are increased. Expression and activity of the 11β-HSD2 are then decreased up to day 22. No significant differences were detected in the left cardiac ventricle. In conclusion, our results demonstrate that gestation is associated with important modifications in the placenta, possibly to ensure a normal fetal growth, while expression in the kidney and the heart is barely changed. More studies on MR expression in those tissues will be required to better characterise the function of the 11β-HSDs throughout pregnancy.

Background: Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of death among women in Sweden. The risk of CVD increases rapidly after the menopause. A major contributing factor may be the redistribution of adipose tissue, from the peripheral to central depots, associated with menopause. This change in body composition is commonly attributed to declining estrogen levels but may also be affected by tissue-specific alterations in exposure to other steroid hormones, notably glucocorticoids – mainly cortisol in humans. Indeed, adipose tissue-specific overexpression of the glucocorticoid-activating enzyme 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 (11βHSD1) induces central obesity, insulin resistance and hypertension in mice. Interestingly, estrogen may regulate this enzyme. The aim of this thesis was to investigate putative links between estrogen and glucocorticoid activation by 11βHSD1. Materials and Methods: 11βHSD1 expression and/or activity in adipose tissue and liver, and adipose estrogen receptor α and β (ERα and ERβ) gene expression, were investigated in lean pre- and postmenopausal women and ovariectomized rodents with and without estrogen supplementation. In lean women measures of 11βHSD1 were correlated to risk markers for CVD. The association between adipose 11βHSD1 and ER mRNA expression was investigated in both lean women and rats and in an additional cohort of obese premenopausal women. In vitro experiments with adipocyte cell lines were used to explore possible pathways for estrogen regulation of 11βHSD1. Results: Subcutaneous adipose tissue transcript levels and hepatic activity of 11βHSD1 were higher in postmenopausal vs. premenopausal women. In rodents, estrogen treatment to ovariectomized rats decreased visceral adipose tissue 11βHSD1, resulting in a shift towards higher subcutaneous (vs. visceral) 11βHSD1 mRNA expression/activity. Increased adipose and hepatic 11βHSD1 were associated with increased blood pressure and a disadvantageous blood lipid profile in humans. We found significant positive associations between 11βHSD1 and ERβ transcript levels in adipose tissue. The in vitro experiments showed upregulation of 11βHSD1 mRNA expression and activity with estrogen or ERβ-agonist treatment at low (corresponding to physiological) concentrations. Conclusions: Our studies show for the first time increased local tissue glucocorticoid activation with menopause/age in women. This may contribute to an increased risk of CVD. Estrogen treatment in rodents induces a shift in 11βHSD1 activity towards the subcutaneous adipose tissue depots, which may direct fat accumulation to this metabolically “safer” depot. The in vitro studies suggest that low-dose estrogen treatment upregulates 11βHSD1 via ERβ. In summary, estrogen - glucocorticoid metabolism interactions may be key in the development of menopause-related metabolic dysfunction and in part mediate the beneficial effects of postmenopausal estrogen treatment on body fat distribution.

Background: Despite advances in the treatment of atherosclerosis, cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death worldwide. With the population getting older and more obese, the burden of cardiovascular disease may further increase. Premenopausal women are relatively protected against cardiovascular disease compared to men, but the reasons for this sex difference are partly unknown. Redistribution of body fat from peripheral to central depots may be a contributing factor. Central fat is associated with hyperlipidemia, hyperglycemia, hypertension, and insulin resistance. Two possible mediators of these metabolic disturbances are tissue-specific production of the stress hormone cortisol and adipose tissue blood flow (ATBF). The aim of this thesis was to determine the adipose tissue production of cortisol by the enzyme 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 (11β-HSD1) and to investigate the regulation of ATBF. Materials and Methods: Cortisol release was estimated by labeled cortisol infusions and tissue-specific catheterizations of subcutaneous and visceral adipose tissue (VAT) in men. We investigated ATBF by 133Xe-washout and its relation to autonomic activity, endothelial function, adipose tissue distribution, and adipokines in different groups of women. We further investigated the effect of two diets and of weight loss on ATBF in women. Results: We demonstrated significant cortisol release from subcutaneous adipose tissue in humans. Splanchnic cortisol release was accounted for entirely by the liver. Cortisol release from VAT (to the portal vein) was not detected. ATBF decreased according to increasing weight and postmenopausal status, and the level of blood flow was associated with nitric oxide (NO) activity and autonomic activity. ATBF was also highly associated with leptin levels and both subcutaneous adipose tissue and VAT areas. After 6 months of diet and weight reduction, a significant difference in ATBF was observed between diet groups. Conclusions: Our data for the first time demonstrate the contributions of cortisol generated from subcutaneous adipose tissue, visceral tissues, and liver by 11β-HSD1. ATBF is linked to autonomic activity, NO activity, and the amount of adipose tissue (independent of fat depot). Postmenopausal overweight women exhibited a loss of ATBF flexibility, which may contribute to the metabolic dysfunction seen in this group. Weight loss in a diet program could not increase the ATBF, although there were ATBF differences between diet groups. The results will increase understanding of adipose tissue biology and contribute to the development of treatment strategies targeting obesity and obesity-related disorders.

Charles University Faculty of Pharmacy in Hradec Králové Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology Candidate: Tereza Červinková Supervisor: PharmDr. Lukáš Červený, Ph.D. Title: Beneficial Effects of 11β-HSD1 Inhibition on Cognitive Performance in a Mouse Model of Alzheimer's Disease The increased life expectancy goes hand in hand with ageing-related cognitive impairments. Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common type of dementia being an irreversible and progressive brain disorder with loss of cognitive functions. Recent studies suggest that excess of glucocorticoid (GC) action exerts deleterious effects on the hippocampus and causes impaired spatialmemory. In addition, it has been demonstrated that aged mice with cognitive deficits show increased gene expression of 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 (11β-HSD1) in the hippocampus and parietal cortex. The Senescence-Accelerated Mouse Prone 8 (SAMP8) strain is a spontaneous animal model of accelerated ageing. Many studies indicate that SAMP8 harbour the behavioural and histopathological signatures of AD. In the present study, we evaluated the neuroprotective effects of 11β-HSD1 inhibition by a potent pyrrolidine-based compound RL-118 and/or effects of diet on cognitive performance in different groups of SAMP8 by conducting behavioural and...