Contemporary emotion research typically takes the phenomenon of emotion to be exhausted by a class of mental events that are intentional, conscious, and related to certain sorts of behaviour. Moreover, other affective phenomena, such as moods, are also considered to be relatively short-term, episodic, or occurrent states of the subject undergoing them. Emotions, and other putative emotional phenomena that common-sense takes as long-lasting, non-episodic, or dispositional are things that both philosophers and scientists sometimes recognise, but that are relatively neglected in comparison to emotional episodes. This thesis aims at showing that this neglect is unjustified. I will argue that there is a class of entities, 'sentiments'—broadly characterised as dispositions to undergo emotional episodes—that (1) are irreducible to emotional episodes or collections thereof and (2) have properties that make them a suitable target of study by the emotion researcher. In the first chapter, I argue that an analysis of caring (and related phenomena, such as love) as a pattern of emotional episodes, while more plausible than alternative, non-emotional accounts, faces a number of counterexamples that motivate the search for an account of caring as related in a certain way to emotions but as irreducible to them. I argue that a dispositional account, according to which dispositions are conceived as distinct from their manifestations, is an account for which a strong case can be made. The second chapter is dedicated to defending a modest form of realism about dispositions in general and psychological dispositions in particular. According to realism, dispositions are genuine properties that, although perhaps reducible to non-dispositional properties, cannot be re-described in terms of events (including behaviour) only. In the third chapter, I show in what ways emotional dispositions (or sentiments) can positively contribute to the explanation of the occurrence (or non-occurrence) of emotional episodes. In the fourth chapter, I argue that caring, understood as a species of sentiment, is not to be construed as a mere disposition to produce certain events; rather, we should allow that certain dispositions are genuinely mental or psychological. Assuming realism about the mental, I argue that some dispositions are mental in a way that others (such as fragility) are not. I suggest that being intentional is the property that makes psychological dispositions genuinely mental. I end the chapter by drawing a connection between caring and the notion of character. On my view, caring is at least a necessary ingredient of certain character traits, in particular the virtues. In chapter five, I tackle a recent form of empirically informed scepticism about character and argue, on the basis of general considerations about psychological dispositions, that the sceptic’s case is not as strong as she makes out. Finally, in chapter six, I argue that at least certain forms of sentiment, for example romantic love, can be genuinely supported by reasons, thereby suggesting a way they can contribute to the value of our lives. Overall, the aim of this thesis is to establish the respectability of sentiments in a sophisticated account of the mind.

Afrikaans text / Skuldgevoelens is 'n emosie wat aile mense een of ander tyd in hulle lewens ervaar. Daar is egter diegene wat daagliks gebuk gaan onder skuldgevoelens en met die gevolge daarvan worstel, byvoorbeeld depressie, angsversteurings, woede-uitbarstings, ensovoorts. Skuldgevoelens se simptome demonstreer heelwat destruktiwiteit en raak persone se totale funksionering, dit is die liggaamlike, affektiewe, kognitiewe, en geestelike aspekte van menswees. Die huidige psigoterapeutiese intervensies fokus op die behandeling van die simptome van skuldgevoelens. Simptoombehandeling bring egter slegs tydelike verligting, aangesien daar met verloop van tyd ander simptome ontwikkel en/ofterugvalle voorkom. Buiten die fokus op simptome van skuldgevoelens is dit belangrik om ook as terapeut te verstaan, wat maak een persoon meer kwesbaar as 'n ander om skuldgevoelens te ontwikkel en waarom die skuldgevoelens instand gehou word. Die behandeling moet derhalwe verskuifword vanaf simptoombehandeling, na die oplossing van die oorsaak en instandhouding. Navorsing oor skuldgevoelens is hoofsaaklik gerig op die effek wat skuldgevoelens op die individu se persoonsvorming het (onder andere die ontwikkeling van patologie). Min navorsing is egter gedoen oor die oorsaak van skuldgevoelens en by name onderbewustelike skuldgevoelens. Die oorkoepelende doel van hierdie navorsing is om die dinamiese verloop van onderbewustelike skuldgevoelens in retrospek bloot te le. 'n Voorafgaande literatuurstudie oor skuldgevoelens lei die gevalstudie in. Daar word gepoog om met behulp van 'n gevalstudie die onderbewustelike persepsies en denke van die respondent bloot te le en dit te omskryf, te interpreteer en te verduidelik. Die studie het verder ook ten doel om aanbevelings vir sielkundiges, professionele hulpverleners, ouers en onderwysers te maak rakende die oorsaak en die onderbewustelike dinamiese verloop van skuldgevoelens, sodat kliente se overte gedrag binne die konteks van bulle volledige psigodinamika verstaan kan word. Literatuur oor die praktiese verloop van hipnoterapie en die motivering van die terapeut se gedagtegang en terapeutiese handeling is yl. Die navorsing poog om op hierdie gebied 'n bydrae te Iewer, aangesien die volledige terapeutiese interaksie opgeskryf is. / Guilt is an emotion which all people experience at times through the course of their lives. There are however, those who experience guilt all the time and struggle with the effects of it, for example depression, anxiety, anger, etcetera. The symptoms of guilt demonstrate destruction and influence the complete functioning of a person - body, emotions, mind, and spirit. The current psychotherapeutic interventions focus on the treatment of the symptoms of guilt. Symptom treatment brings only tempor ry relief, which is usually followed by new symptoms developing or relapses. Apart from the focus on the symptoms of guilt, it is also important that the therapist should understand why one person is more vulnerable than another person to develop guilt, and why is guilt preserved. Accordingly treatment can be shifted from symptom treatment to solving the problems of the cause and maintenance of guilt. Research on guilt focuses primarily on the effect of guilt on personality development (pathology among others). Less research has been done on the cause of guilt - especially subconscious guilt. The overall aim of this study is to uncover the dynamic course of subconscious guilt retroperspectively. A literature study on guilt serves as introduction to the case study. The research is done by means of a case study to uncover the subconscious perceptions and thoughts of the respondent, which will be described, interpreted and explained. The research will establish recommendations for Educational Psychologists, psychologists in other categories, parents and teachers to understand the cause and subconscious dynamic course of guilt. That will enable them to interpret the overt behaviour in the context of the complete psychodynamics. Literature on the practical course of therapy and the train of thoughts of the therapist is in short supply. This research seeks to contribute to filling this gap when the complete therapeutic interaction between the therapist and the client is put down in writing. / Psychology of Education / D. Ed. (Sielkundige Opvoedkunde)

This dissertation explores Wittgenstein’s views on the mind-body problem. It is possible to provide an examination of Wittgenstein’s approach by tracing the evolution of the theory of mind and the mind-body problem, by considering the current ways of dealing with the mind-body problem, and Wittgenstein’s critique of the notion of the mind. Wittgenstein’s views on the nature of philosophy and the relationship between philosophy and psychology make it possible to understand and as this dissertation argues – see beyond – the conceptual confusion that has since arisen out of philosophic tradition that perpetuates a ‘myth of the mind’. Schools of thought such as the Cartesians and cognitivists have attempted, through the construction of various elaborate theories, to solve the ‘riddle’ of the mind and to address the so-called ‘mind-body problem’. Cognitive science, in particular, has used the tradition and the myth of the mind as a basis for its research. Wittgenstein shows that such thinking is particularly muddled. By examining Wittgenstein’s approach to the mind-body problem, it is argued here that theories based on the tradition of the ‘myth of the mind’ are inherently flawed. Wittgenstein uses his methods, consisting of his notions of ‘grammar’, ‘language games’ and the re-arrangement of concepts, to extrapolate meaning and to see through the conceptual confusions that the use of language causes and that give rise to the mind-body problem . / Psychology / M.A. (Psychology)

Shame is a complex emotion and often discussed with reluctance; these feelings are usually incapacitating and unbearable. In this thesis, four studies explored aspects of shame vulnerability and shame management. First, a cross-sectional study (n = 240) was carried out to assess factors contributing to the experience of shame. This study demonstrated that negative self-judgment and submissive coping strategies accounted for a significant variance in shame above and beyond the effects of recall of adverse childhood experiences, and that negative self-judgment fully mediated the relationship between recall of childhood experiences and shame. The second study (n = 140 and n = 415) examined the underlying factor structure of a new measure: the Acceptance of Shame and Embarrassment Scale (ASES). Factor analysis in both samples revealed that the ASES had good internal consistency and construct validity. Thirdly, a cross sectional study (n = 159) considered self-compassion and mindfulness as methods of shame management and demonstrated that mindful and self-compassionate were significantly and negatively correlated with the experience of shame. In addition, this study showed that self-compassion fully mediated the mindfulness-shame relationship. The final experimental study (n = 120) assessed the effect of shame on mind wandering. Participants were assigned to shame, pride, or control conditions, and mind wandering during a subsequent reading task was measured using retrospective and behavioural methods. Inducing feelings of shame did not have a significant effect on mind wandering. Overall, these studies suggested that (a) adverse childhood experiences were significantly associated with negative self-judgment and shame, (b) adopting submissive coping strategies is likely to increase the chance of shame vulnerability, (c) the Acceptance of Shame and Embarrassment Scale had promising psychometric properties for assessing acceptance of shame and embarrassment experiences, (d) self-compassion mediated the relationship between mindfulness and shame, and (e) inducing feelings of shame did not have a significant effect on mind wandering.

This thesis comprises three main sections: a literature review, research report and a critical appraisal of the research process. The literature reviewed is the current scientific literature relating to shame and guilt. The review attempts to clarify the conceptual confusion regarding shame and guilt and in particular attempts to delineate the distinctions between the two constructs whilst acknowleding the intricate and entwined relationship. The review also attempts to clarify the confusion regarding the role of guilt and its capacity to elicit both adaptive and maladaptive responses according to the way in which it is operationalised and conceptualised. The importance of the relationship between shame, guilt and mental health problems is presented with supporting empirical evidence. It is concluded that a new shame and guilt measure is required to show how shame and the maladaptive and adaptive aspects of guilt can be operationalised. It is hoped that this will enable future researchers to consider incorporating a profile approach to guilt in particular and that clinicians will consider the multiple and complex roles of shame and guilt in relation to psychological symptoms. The research report (Section 2) comprises two studies. Study 1 is the design, development and piloting of the new questionnaire assessing dispositional shame and guilt. The new measure is constructed and validity tested using an inductive approach. Study 2 is the use of the new measure with a forensic clinical sample and the relationship between guilt, shame and psychological symptoms is examined. It is hoped that this study will encourage researchers to locate future investigations within the clinical population. The final section is the researcher's critical appraisal of the research process based on her personal diary. This section is reflective and considers the impact of the research process on the researcher, the highs and lows of the research process and what changes the researcher might make.

Research conducted on emotion by psychologists has produced numerous understandings of the concept and there is currently no consensus as to how it should be defined (Russell, 2012). Despite some general agreement among some theorists as to certain aspects, such as physiological response, eliciting events, and related facial expressions, it is a persistent issue and discussions as to how a solution may be found have recurred at various points throughout the history of psychology. Some work has been done to address the problem through the meta-analysis of various definitions and this has proved to be useful in showing the areas where psychologists might agree (e.g. Izard, 2010; Kleinginna & Kleinginna, 1981; Plutchik, 1980). There is an assumption, therefore, that with enough research and debate a solution will be found. However, this assumption neglects to take into account the changing ontological and methodological contexts through which emotion has been defined in psychological science. For this reason the current debates lack a broader contextualisation which could reveal what has influenced the production of particular definitions and the reasons why the problems of definition have come about. This thesis aims to address this gap in the literature by presenting a historical analysis of the understandings of emotion which were produced during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Although there has been a great deal of historical work produced which examines psychological theories from this time, there is little, apart from Dixon (2012) which is specifically aimed at contextualising this particular issue. In particular, this thesis will examine one respect in which emotion is often defined; as that of being a subjective experience. This understanding, whilst it most often seems to be the way in which people, if asked, define emotion (Davitz, 1970) has, historically, proved to be contentious in psychological science, perhaps because it is difficult to capture. The thesis describes the method of introspection and its use as a means to examine the subjective experience of emotion during the early years of psychology, and looks at what can be learned about the issue of definition through an understanding of the work conducted during that period. It is shown that introspective analyses often presented a picture of emotions as complex, idiosyncratic and individual experiences and that these characteristics contrasted with the assumptions of the emerging scientific psychology that emotion should be defined as structured, predictable and universal. The search for a concept of emotion which embodied the latter rather than the former characteristics is described, and it is demonstrated that the result was a variety of different conceptualisations. The thesis concludes that it is important not to view the current problem simply as one of academic differences over the veracity of definitions, but to contextualise it in relation to the psychologist’s search for a definition of emotion that assumes the characteristics of a scientific concept.

No description available.

Afrikaans text / Skuldgevoelens is 'n emosie wat aile mense een of ander tyd in hulle lewens ervaar. Daar is egter diegene wat daagliks gebuk gaan onder skuldgevoelens en met die gevolge daarvan worstel, byvoorbeeld depressie, angsversteurings, woede-uitbarstings, ensovoorts. Skuldgevoelens se simptome demonstreer heelwat destruktiwiteit en raak persone se totale funksionering, dit is die liggaamlike, affektiewe, kognitiewe, en geestelike aspekte van menswees. Die huidige psigoterapeutiese intervensies fokus op die behandeling van die simptome van skuldgevoelens. Simptoombehandeling bring egter slegs tydelike verligting, aangesien daar met verloop van tyd ander simptome ontwikkel en/ofterugvalle voorkom. Buiten die fokus op simptome van skuldgevoelens is dit belangrik om ook as terapeut te verstaan, wat maak een persoon meer kwesbaar as 'n ander om skuldgevoelens te ontwikkel en waarom die skuldgevoelens instand gehou word. Die behandeling moet derhalwe verskuifword vanaf simptoombehandeling, na die oplossing van die oorsaak en instandhouding. Navorsing oor skuldgevoelens is hoofsaaklik gerig op die effek wat skuldgevoelens op die individu se persoonsvorming het (onder andere die ontwikkeling van patologie). Min navorsing is egter gedoen oor die oorsaak van skuldgevoelens en by name onderbewustelike skuldgevoelens. Die oorkoepelende doel van hierdie navorsing is om die dinamiese verloop van onderbewustelike skuldgevoelens in retrospek bloot te le. 'n Voorafgaande literatuurstudie oor skuldgevoelens lei die gevalstudie in. Daar word gepoog om met behulp van 'n gevalstudie die onderbewustelike persepsies en denke van die respondent bloot te le en dit te omskryf, te interpreteer en te verduidelik. Die studie het verder ook ten doel om aanbevelings vir sielkundiges, professionele hulpverleners, ouers en onderwysers te maak rakende die oorsaak en die onderbewustelike dinamiese verloop van skuldgevoelens, sodat kliente se overte gedrag binne die konteks van bulle volledige psigodinamika verstaan kan word. Literatuur oor die praktiese verloop van hipnoterapie en die motivering van die terapeut se gedagtegang en terapeutiese handeling is yl. Die navorsing poog om op hierdie gebied 'n bydrae te Iewer, aangesien die volledige terapeutiese interaksie opgeskryf is. / Guilt is an emotion which all people experience at times through the course of their lives. There are however, those who experience guilt all the time and struggle with the effects of it, for example depression, anxiety, anger, etcetera. The symptoms of guilt demonstrate destruction and influence the complete functioning of a person - body, emotions, mind, and spirit. The current psychotherapeutic interventions focus on the treatment of the symptoms of guilt. Symptom treatment brings only tempor ry relief, which is usually followed by new symptoms developing or relapses. Apart from the focus on the symptoms of guilt, it is also important that the therapist should understand why one person is more vulnerable than another person to develop guilt, and why is guilt preserved. Accordingly treatment can be shifted from symptom treatment to solving the problems of the cause and maintenance of guilt. Research on guilt focuses primarily on the effect of guilt on personality development (pathology among others). Less research has been done on the cause of guilt - especially subconscious guilt. The overall aim of this study is to uncover the dynamic course of subconscious guilt retroperspectively. A literature study on guilt serves as introduction to the case study. The research is done by means of a case study to uncover the subconscious perceptions and thoughts of the respondent, which will be described, interpreted and explained. The research will establish recommendations for Educational Psychologists, psychologists in other categories, parents and teachers to understand the cause and subconscious dynamic course of guilt. That will enable them to interpret the overt behaviour in the context of the complete psychodynamics. Literature on the practical course of therapy and the train of thoughts of the therapist is in short supply. This research seeks to contribute to filling this gap when the complete therapeutic interaction between the therapist and the client is put down in writing. / Psychology of Education / D. Ed. (Sielkundige Opvoedkunde)

This dissertation explores Wittgenstein’s views on the mind-body problem. It is possible to provide an examination of Wittgenstein’s approach by tracing the evolution of the theory of mind and the mind-body problem, by considering the current ways of dealing with the mind-body problem, and Wittgenstein’s critique of the notion of the mind. Wittgenstein’s views on the nature of philosophy and the relationship between philosophy and psychology make it possible to understand and as this dissertation argues – see beyond – the conceptual confusion that has since arisen out of philosophic tradition that perpetuates a ‘myth of the mind’. Schools of thought such as the Cartesians and cognitivists have attempted, through the construction of various elaborate theories, to solve the ‘riddle’ of the mind and to address the so-called ‘mind-body problem’. Cognitive science, in particular, has used the tradition and the myth of the mind as a basis for its research. Wittgenstein shows that such thinking is particularly muddled. By examining Wittgenstein’s approach to the mind-body problem, it is argued here that theories based on the tradition of the ‘myth of the mind’ are inherently flawed. Wittgenstein uses his methods, consisting of his notions of ‘grammar’, ‘language games’ and the re-arrangement of concepts, to extrapolate meaning and to see through the conceptual confusions that the use of language causes and that give rise to the mind-body problem . / Psychology / M.A. (Psychology)

This thesis is an investigation of the proximate mechanisms and ultimate functions of memory for emotional events. The theoretical basis of this Thesis is that in order to reach a full understanding of a biological phenomenon, it is important that both proximate and ultimate (functional) explanations for that phenomenon are explored. Chapters 2 and 3 present an examination of the proximate mechanisms involved in memory consolidation of emotional events. In Chapter 2, three experiments are presented each testing the hypothesis that stress hormone activation immediately following viewing an emotional event enhances memory for that event. Each of the three experiments failed to find an enhancing effect of stress hormone activation on memory consolidation. Chapter 3 describes an investigation into whether the reduced feedback from the body to the brain, which occurs as a result of total spinal cord transection, diminishes the intensity of emotional experience and therefore impairs memory for emotional events. The results of this investigation revealed no differences between spinal cord transection patients and matched control participants in emotional expressivity, emotional awareness and in memory for emotional material. Chapters 4 and 5 explore how memory and emotion may interact differently for males and females and in manner that facilitates their survival and reproduction. Evolutionary theory argues that males should be more concerned than females about threats to their social status, whereas females should be more concerned about threats to their physical appearance and sexual reputation. Chapter 4 describes two experiments testing whether a) males have enhanced emotional arousal and memory for words implying they are of low social status; b) females have enhanced emotional arousal and memory for words implying they are physically unattractive and sexually untrustworthy. The results of these experiments showed that females had enhanced memory for words relating to physical appearance, and partial evidence that males have 2 enhanced memory for words relating to social status. Chapter 5 tests the evolutionary theory that males should be more emotionally aroused and thus have greater memory for cues relating to sexual infidelity (the thought of their partner having sex with another man), whereas females should be more emotionally aroused and have greater memory for cues to emotional infidelity (the thought of their partner forming a close emotional attachment with another woman). It also examines whether relationship status affects emotional arousal and memory for these cues. The results did not find any support for these hypothesised sex difference in memory. However, those ‘currently in a relationship’ did show enhanced emotional arousal to cues to sexual infidelity compared to those ‘currently not in a relationship’. Chapter 6 presents an investigation concerning the evolutionary hypothesis that individuals tend to have enhanced recognition memory for the faces of deceivers or ‘liars’. This chapter describes a study in which participants viewed a series of short video clips of individuals, half of whom were lying, half telling the truth. Participants’ memory for the individuals that appeared in the video clips was tested but there was no evidence of enhanced memory for the faces of ‘liars’. Chapter 7 provides a general discussion of the findings of this thesis. The failure to find an enhancing effect of post learning stress hormone activation on memory for emotional material, and the failure to find an impairment in memory for emotional material in people with total spinal cord transection contradict two established views on the proximate mechanisms involved in emotion, and emotions effect of the brain. How these findings relate to the established mainstream views on emotion and memory are discussed. The findings of studies concerning the functional interaction of memory and emotion presented in this thesis are also discussed in relation to previous research.