Using a coupled global atmospheric chemistry and climate model we have predicted the evolution of tropospheric concentrations of chemical species along with climate parameters, based on a set of economic model predictions for anthropogenic emissions of chemically and radiatively important trace gases in the next 120 years. In particular, our predictions for tropospheric hydroxyl radical (OH) concentrations indicate the potential for substantial future changes affecting both atmospheric chemistry and climate. OH is arguably the most important free radical in the troposphere because it is the primary removal mechanism for most gases entering the atmosphere, and therefore, determines the lifetimes of these species. Our research indicates that if CH4 and CO emissions continually increase as expected through the next century, the tropospheric concentration of OH could decrease by as much as 29% from its current value. As a result, the lifetime of CO in the year 2100 is predicted to lengthen by 0.6 months beyond its current value of 2 months, and the CH4 lifetime in 2100 would exceed its current value (9 years) by 2.5 years in our reference case. / Includes bibliographical references. / Abstract in HTML and technical report in HTML and PDF available on the Massachusetts Institute of Technology Joint Program on the Science and Policy of Global Change website (http://mit.edu/globalchange/www/)

DE LA TESIS TITULADA:LA JUSTICIA A FINALES DEL SIGLO XIX. UN CASO CONCRETO: LA AUDIENCIA DE LO CRIMINAL DE MANRESA (1882-1892).AUTOR DE LA TESIS: JUAN MARCOS ESTARAN PEIXDIRECTOR DE LA TESIS: PROFESOR DR. D. ANTONI M. JORDÀ FERNANDEZLa tesis que se presenta esta estructurada en primer lugar con una introducción de los objetivos principales del trabajo continuando con una primera parte donde se analiza el estado de la administración de justicia a finales del siglo XIX , teniendo en cuenta el marco constitucional histórico; una segunda parte dirigida a estudiar y analizar las Audiencias de lo Criminal, como órganos de nueva creación, y encargados a su vez de aplicar la nueva Ley de Enjuiciamiento Criminal de 1882 (en adelante LECR) ; y una tercera parte dedicada exclusivamente al estudio de la Audiencia de lo Criminal de Manresa. Dejando en la parte final del trabajo las conclusiones, las fuentes y la bibliografía utilizadas. Las fuentes de investigación de la tesis han sido fundamentalmente el Archivo de la Corona de Aragón, el Archivo Histórico Nacional, el Archivo del Congreso de Diputados y el Archivo Histórico de la Ciudad de Manresa , así como la legislación histórica de la época.Con la entrada en vigor de la LECR de 1882 se produjo un importante cambio en la forma de enjuiciar las causas penales. La historia de este cambio, no estudiado hasta la fecha, en el procedimiento penal y en la justicia penal y de las circunstancias históricas en que se produjo, de las personas y instituciones que por un motivo u otro intervinieron en este proceso histórico-jurídico, constituyen los puntos principales de este trabajo, y cuyos objetivos principales se podrían resumir en los siguientes puntos: 1) El encaje constitucional de la Justicia en el siglo XIX considerada mas una administración más que un poder. 2) La entrada en vigor y el desarrollo de la LPOPJ de 1870,y de la Ley Adicional de 1882 como ejemplo de lo que fue la justicia de la Restauración 3) La entrada en vigor de un proceso penal nuevo, con la aplicación y puesta en marcha de la LECR de 1882. 4) El interés político por la reforma y el seguimiento oficial de los efectos de la aplicación de la nueva ley: las estadísticas judiciales, siendo el estudio de los diez años de la actividad de las Audiencias de lo Criminal una de las aportaciones novedosas que se ofrecen en este trabajo.5) El estudio y investigación del caso particular de la Audiencia de Manresa, como ejemplo de lo que fue un tribunal de la Restauración, al ser ello posible por haberse conservado por puro azar y en el ámbito territorial de la extinta Audiencia Territorial de Barcelona ,casi toda su documentación Disponer de este tipo de fondos decimonónicos no suele ser habitual, pues la destrucción de archivos judiciales ha sido la tónica general hasta hace relativamente bien poco. El estudio de campo efectuado de las documentación del tribunal desde el momento de su constitución, hasta su disolución, utilizando para ello las fuentes documentales conservadas, constituye la principal novedad que se trata de aportar al estudio de la administración de justicia decimonónica. A través de la misma es posible observar, documentar y ofrecer a los lectores, una visión lo mas amplia posible, de los problemas que se plantearon referentes a la dotación y planta de plazas de magistrados, secretarios, fiscales y demás personal judicial, a las conexiones de la justicia con el poder local, especialmente con el Ayuntamiento y el Colegio de Abogados, a la situación de la cárcel local, verdadero reflejo de una situación de abandono de las instituciones, pero sobretodo es importante el estudio de la actividad judicial del Tribunal, a través del estudio de su actividad con el análisis de sus estadísticas, y de la documentación conservada, y sobretodo de sus sentencias, verdadero reflejo del derecho penal y procesal de la época. Todo ello ambientado en una ciudad como Manresa, situada en el corazón industrial de Cataluña, en plena época de la industrialización , con sus problemas sociales y políticos, y que han hecho del estudio de este tribunal una situación peculiar dentro de la justicia de finales del siglo XIX..Barcelona, diciembre del 2007. / OF THE THESIS :JUSTICE AT THE END OF THE XIX CENTURY. A SPECIFIC CASE :THE MANRESA CRIMINAL HEARING (1882 - 1892)AUTHOR OF THE THESIS : JOAN MARC ESTARAN PEIXTHESIS DIRECTOR : PROFESSOR DR. MR. ANTONI M.JORDÀFERNANDEZThe thesis herein presented is structured, firstly, by an introduction of themain aims of the job, followed by a first part where the state of the JusticeAdministration at the end of the XIX century is analysed, considering theconstitutional historical frame; a second part aimed to the study andanalysis of Criminal Hearings, as new organs, and in charge of theapplication of the new Rule of Criminal Procedure of 1882 (from now onLECR, Spanish acronym); and a third part dedicated exclusively to thestudy of the Criminal Hearing of Manresa. In the final part we would findthe conclusions, sources and bibliography. The main sources ofinvestigation of the thesis have been mainly the Records of the Crown ofAragon, the National Historical Records, as well as the historicallegislation of that period.When the LECR of 1882 came into force a very important change in theway of judging Criminal Cases took place. The history of this change -which has not yet been studied - in the Criminal Proceedings and CriminalJustice, and the historical circumstances in which it was produced, of thepeople and institutions which for one reason or another influenced thishistorical and legal process, constitute the main points of this work, and themain aims could be summed up in the following points : 1) Theconstitutional situation of Justice en the XIX century considered more as anadministration than a power. 2) The enforcement and development of theLPOPJ of 1870, and of the 1882 Additional Law as an example of whatjustice like during the XIX century. 3) The enforcement of a newcriminal process, with the 1882 LECR coming into force. 4) The politicalinterest for the reform and the official follow-up of the effects of theapplication of such new law : judicial statistics, representing the study often years of activity of the Criminal Hearings, one of the new contributionsoffered in this job. 5) The study and investigation of the particular case ofthe Audience of Manresa, as an example of what a Court was like duringthe Restoration, which was possible since it survived by pure chance in theterritorial field of the extinct Territorial Audience of Barcelona, almost allits documentation. To have this type or nineteenth-century background isnot very common, since the destruction of legal files has been the generalrule until a short time ago. The field study that was carried out on thedocumentation of the Court from its constitution to its dissolution, using forthat the preserved documentary sources, constitutes a key novelty whichconsists on the contribution in the study of the XIX century JusticeAdministration. From that perspective, we can observe, document andoffer the readers a wider vision of the problems that were raised back thenwith regard to the resources as well as the team of judge magistrates,secretaries, judges and other judicial staff, to the connections of justice withthe local power, especially with the Town Hall and the Bar Association, tothe situation of the local prison, true reflex of a situation of abandonment ofthe institutions, but the study of the judicial activity of the Court isespecially important, through the study of its activity analyzing statistics aswell as the preserved documentation and more specifically its sentences,which are a true reflex of the criminal and procedural code of the time. Allthis with a background as beautiful as the city of Manresa, situated en theindustrial heart of Catalonia during the industrialization, with its social andpolitical problems, and which have made the study of this Court a specialsituation within justice by the end of the XIX century.Barcelona, December 2007

La “lluvia ácida” o “deposición ácida” es un fenómeno de contaminación atmosférica de significativa incidencia negativa sobre el ser humano y su entorno, siendo una de sus características su transporte a través de la atmósfera. La presente tesis doctoral tiene como objetivo analizar en profundidad los fundamentos y alcance del régimen de la Convención de Ginebra de 1979, por ser el primero en abordar una problemática atmosférica de gran escala, con un significativo desarrollo en materia de protocolos, todos los cuales presentan un determinante sustento científico y técnico. El análisis se enfoca fundamentalmente en la necesidad de asumir la transversalidad de la contaminación atmosférica, el ineludible nexo entre la ciencia y el Derecho al momento de elaborar un acuerdo internacional medioambiental. Como también, en la necesidad de abordar la gestión de la problemática atmosférica globalmente. Iniciamos el trabajo de investigación con un primer capítulo destinado a conocer la atmósfera y la incidencia de sus alteraciones o trastornos sobre los seres humanos y su entorno. Continúa con un segundo capítulo donde se presentan algunos conceptos y base teórica con la que cuenta el Derecho internacional público, para poder analizar un régimen internacional medioambiental. Finalizandocon un tercer capítulo donde analizamos detalladamente el régimen de Ginebra de 1979. El estudio realizado nos permite concluir que el fenómeno de la“lluvia ácida”, su conocimiento e investigación constante, y la notable reducción en las emisiones de los contaminantes incluidos dentro del régimen, dan muestra de la relevancia y trascendencia del régimen de la CLRTAP, admitiendo y considerando la inevitable influencia de factores externos.

Primary stability of stems in cementless total hip replacements is recognized to play a critical role for long-term survival and thus for the success of the overall surgical procedure. In Literature, several studies addressed this important issue. Different approaches have been explored aiming to evaluate the extent of stability achieved during surgery. Some of these are in-vitro protocols while other tools are coinceived for the post-operative assessment of prosthesis migration relative to the host bone. In vitro protocols reported in the literature are not exportable to the operating room. Anyway most of them show a good overall accuracy. The RSA, EBRA and the radiographic analysis are currently used to check the healing process of the implanted femur at different follow-ups, evaluating implant migration, occurance of bone resorption or osteolysis at the interface. These methods are important for follow up and clinical study but do not assist the surgeon during implantation. At the time I started my Ph.D Study in Bioengineering, only one study had been undertaken to measure stability intra-operatively. No follow-up was presented to describe further results obtained with that device. In this scenario, it was believed that an instrument that could measure intra-operatively the stability achieved by an implanted stem would consistently improve the rate of success. This instrument should be accurate and should give to the surgeon during implantation a quick answer concerning the stability of the implanted stem. With this aim, an intra-operative device was designed, developed and validated. The device is meant to help the surgeon to decide how much to press-fit the implant. It is essentially made of a torsional load cell, able to measure the extent of torque applied by the surgeon to test primary stability, an angular sensor that measure the relative angular displacement between stem and femur, a rigid connector that enable connecting the device to the stem, and all the electronics for signals conditioning. The device was successfully validated in-vitro, showing a good overall accuracy in discriminating stable from unstable implants. Repeatability tests showed that the device was reliable. A calibration procedure was then performed in order to convert the angular readout into a linear displacement measurement, which is an information clinically relevant and simple to read in real-time by the surgeon. The second study reported in my thesis, concerns the evaluation of the possibility to have predictive information regarding the primary stability of a cementless stem, by measuring the micromotion of the last rasp used by the surgeon to prepare the femoral canal. This information would be really useful to the surgeon, who could check prior to the implantation process if the planned stem size can achieve a sufficient degree of primary stability, under optimal press fitting conditions. An intra-operative tool was developed to this aim. It was derived from a previously validated device, which was adapted for the specific purpose. The device is able to measure the relative micromotion between the femur and the rasp, when a torsional load is applied. An in-vitro protocol was developed and validated on both composite and cadaveric specimens. High correlation was observed between one of the parameters extracted form the acquisitions made on the rasp and the stability of the corresponding stem, when optimally press-fitted by the surgeon. After tuning in-vitro the protocol as in a closed loop, verification was made on two hip patients, confirming the results obtained in-vitro and highlighting the independence of the rasp indicator from the bone quality, anatomy and preserving conditions of the tested specimens, and from the sharpening of the rasp blades. The third study is related to an approach that have been recently explored in the orthopaedic community, but that was already in use in other scientific fields. It is based on the vibration analysis technique. This method has been successfully used to investigate the mechanical properties of the bone and its application to evaluate the extent of fixation of dental implants has been explored, even if its validity in this field is still under discussion. Several studies have been published recently on the stability assessment of hip implants by vibration analysis. The aim of the reported study was to develop and validate a prototype device based on the vibration analysis technique to measure intra-operatively the extent of implant stability. The expected advantages of a vibration-based device are easier clinical use, smaller dimensions and minor overall cost with respect to other devices based on direct micromotion measurement. The prototype developed consists of a piezoelectric exciter connected to the stem and an accelerometer attached to the femur. Preliminary tests were performed on four composite femurs implanted with a conventional stem. The results showed that the input signal was repeatable and the output could be recorded accurately. The fourth study concerns the application of the device based on the vibration analysis technique to several cases, considering both composite and cadaveric specimens. Different degrees of bone quality were tested, as well as different femur anatomies and several levels of press-fitting were considered. The aim of the study was to verify if it is possible to discriminate between stable and quasi-stable implants, because this is the most challenging detection for the surgeon in the operation room. Moreover, it was possible to validate the measurement protocol by comparing the results of the acquisitions made with the vibration-based tool to two reference measurements made by means of a validated technique, and a validated device. The results highlighted that the most sensitive parameter to stability is the shift in resonance frequency of the stem-bone system, showing high correlation with residual micromotion on all the tested specimens. Thus, it seems possible to discriminate between many levels of stability, from the grossly loosened implant, through the quasi-stable implants, to the definitely stable one. Finally, an additional study was performed on a different type of hip prosthesis, which has recently gained great interest thus becoming fairly popular in some countries in the last few years: the hip resurfacing prosthesis. The study was motivated by the following rationale: although bone-prosthesis micromotion is known to influence the stability of total hip replacement, its effect on the outcome of resurfacing implants has not been investigated in-vitro yet, but only clinically. Thus the work was aimed at verifying if it was possible to apply to the resurfacing prosthesis one of the intraoperative devices just validated for the measurement of the micromotion in the resurfacing implants. To do that, a preliminary study was performed in order to evaluate the extent of migration and the typical elastic movement for an epiphyseal prosthesis. An in-vitro procedure was developed to measure micromotions of resurfacing implants. This included a set of in-vitro loading scenarios that covers the range of directions covered by hip resultant forces in the most typical motor-tasks. The applicability of the protocol was assessed on two different commercial designs and on different head sizes. The repeatability and reproducibility were excellent (comparable to the best previously published protocols for standard cemented hip stems). Results showed that the procedure is accurate enough to detect micromotions of the order of few microns. The protocol proposed was thus completely validated. The results of the study demonstrated that the application of an intra-operative device to the resurfacing implants is not necessary, as the typical micromovement associated to this type of prosthesis could be considered negligible and thus not critical for the stabilization process. Concluding, four intra-operative tools have been developed and fully validated during these three years of research activity. The use in the clinical setting was tested for one of the devices, which could be used right now by the surgeon to evaluate the degree of stability achieved through the press-fitting procedure. The tool adapted to be used on the rasp was a good predictor of the stability of the stem. Thus it could be useful for the surgeon while checking if the pre-operative planning was correct. The device based on the vibration technique showed great accuracy, small dimensions, and thus has a great potential to become an instrument appreciated by the surgeon. It still need a clinical evaluation, and must be industrialized as well. The in-vitro tool worked very well, and can be applied for assessing resurfacing implants pre-clinically.

The knee joint is a key structure of the human locomotor system. The knowledge of how each single anatomical structure of the knee contributes to determine the physiological function of the knee, is of fundamental importance for the development of new prostheses and novel clinical, surgical, and rehabilitative procedures. In this context, a modelling approach is necessary to estimate the biomechanic function of each anatomical structure during daily living activities. The main aim of this study was to obtain a subject-specific model of the knee joint of a selected healthy subject. In particular, 3D models of the cruciate ligaments and of the tibio-femoral articular contact were proposed and developed using accurate bony geometries and kinematics reliably recorded by means of nuclear magnetic resonance and 3D video-fluoroscopy from the selected subject. Regarding the model of the cruciate ligaments, each ligament was modelled with 25 linear-elastic elements paying particular attention to the anatomical twisting of the fibres. The devised model was as subject-specific as possible. The geometrical parameters were directly estimated from the experimental measurements, whereas the only mechanical parameter of the model, the elastic modulus, had to be considered from the literature because of the invasiveness of the needed measurements. Thus, the developed model was employed for simulations of stability tests and during living activities. Physiologically meaningful results were always obtained. Nevertheless, the lack of subject-specific mechanical characterization induced to design and partially develop a novel experimental method to characterize the mechanics of the human cruciate ligaments in living healthy subjects. Moreover, using the same subject-specific data, the tibio-femoral articular interaction was modelled investigating the location of the contact point during the execution of daily motor tasks and the contact area at the full extension with and without the whole body weight of the subject. Two different approaches were implemented and their efficiency was evaluated. Thus, pros and cons of each approach were discussed in order to suggest future improvements of this methodologies. The final results of this study will contribute to produce useful methodologies for the investigation of the in-vivo function and pathology of the knee joint during the execution of daily living activities. Thus, the developed methodologies will be useful tools for the development of new prostheses, tools and procedures both in research field and in diagnostic, surgical and rehabilitative fields.

Background. The surgical treatment of dysfunctional hips is a severe condition for the patient and a costly therapy for the public health. Hip resurfacing techniques seem to hold the promise of various advantages over traditional THR, with particular attention to young and active patients. Although the lesson provided in the past by many branches of engineering is that success in designing competitive products can be achieved only by predicting the possible scenario of failure, to date the understanding of the implant quality is poorly pre-clinically addressed. Thus revision is the only delayed and reliable end point for assessment. The aim of the present work was to model the musculoskeletal system so as to develop a protocol for predicting failure of hip resurfacing prosthesis. Methods. Preliminary studies validated the technique for the generation of subject specific finite element (FE) models of long bones from Computed Thomography data. The proposed protocol consisted in the numerical analysis of the prosthesis biomechanics by deterministic and statistic studies so as to assess the risk of biomechanical failure on the different operative conditions the implant might face in a population of interest during various activities of daily living. Physiological conditions were defined including the variability of the anatomy, bone densitometry, surgery uncertainties and published boundary conditions at the hip. The protocol was tested by analysing a successful design on the market and a new prototype of a resurfacing prosthesis. Results. The intrinsic accuracy of models on bone stress predictions (RMSE < 10%) was aligned to the current state of the art in this field. The accuracy of prediction on the bone-prosthesis contact mechanics was also excellent (< 0.001 mm). The sensitivity of models prediction to uncertainties on modelling parameter was found below 8.4%. The analysis of the successful design resulted in a very good agreement with published retrospective studies. The geometry optimisation of the new prototype lead to a final design with a low risk of failure. The statistical analysis confirmed the minimal risk of the optimised design over the entire population of interest. The performances of the optimised design showed a significant improvement with respect to the first prototype (+35%). Limitations. On the authors opinion the major limitation of this study is on boundary conditions. The muscular forces and the hip joint reaction were derived from the few data available in the literature, which can be considered significant but hardly representative of the entire variability of boundary conditions the implant might face over the patients population. This moved the focus of the research on modelling the musculoskeletal system; the ongoing activity is to develop subject-specific musculoskeletal models of the lower limb from medical images. Conclusions. The developed protocol was able to accurately predict known clinical outcomes when applied to a well-established device and, to support the design optimisation phase providing important information on critical characteristics of the patients when applied to a new prosthesis. The presented approach does have a relevant generality that would allow the extension of the protocol to a large set of orthopaedic scenarios with minor changes. Hence, a failure mode analysis criterion can be considered a suitable tool in developing new orthopaedic devices.

This thesis is a part of a larger study about the characterization of mechanical and histomorphometrical properties of bone. The main objects of this study were the bone tissue properties and its resistance to mechanical loads. Moreover, the knowledge about the equipment selected to carry out the analyses, the micro-computed tomography (micro-CT), was improved. Particular attention was given to the reliability over time of the measuring instrument. In order to understand the main characteristics of bone mechanical properties a study of the skeletal, the bones of which it is composed and biological principles that drive their formation and remodelling, was necessary. This study has led to the definition of two macro-classes describing the main components responsible for the resistance to fracture of bone: quantity and quality of bone. The study of bone quantity is the current clinical standard measure for so-called bone densitometry, and research studies have amply demonstrated that the amount of tissue is correlated with its mechanical properties of elasticity and fracture. However, the models presented in the literature, including information on the mere quantity of tissue, have often been limited in describing the mechanical behaviour. Recent investigations have underlined that also the bone-structure and the tissue-mineralization play an important role in the mechanical characterization of bone tissue. For this reason in this thesis the class defined as bone quality was mainly studied, splitting it into two sub-classes of bone structure and tissue quality. A study on bone structure was designed to identify which structural parameters, among the several presented in the literature, could be integrated with the information about quantity, in order to better describe the mechanical properties of bone. In this way, it was also possible to analyse the iteration between structure and function. It has been known for long that bone tissue is capable of remodeling and changing its internal structure according to loads, but the dynamics of these changes are still being analysed. This part of the study was aimed to identify the parameters that could quantify the structural changes of bone tissue during the development of a given disease: osteoarthritis. A study on tissue quality would have to be divided into different classes, which would require a scale of analysis not suitable for the micro-CT. For this reason the study was focused only on the mineralization of the tissue, highlighting the difference between bone density and tissue density, working in a context where there is still an ongoing scientific debate.

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No description available.

The aim of this thesis was to describe the development of motion analysis protocols for applications on upper and lower limb extremities, by using inertial sensors-based systems. Inertial sensors-based systems are relatively recent. Knowledge and development of methods and algorithms for the use of such systems for clinical purposes is therefore limited if compared with stereophotogrammetry. However, their advantages in terms of low cost, portability, small size, are a valid reason to follow this direction. When developing motion analysis protocols based on inertial sensors, attention must be given to several aspects, like the accuracy of inertial sensors-based systems and their reliability. The need to develop specific algorithms/methods and software for using these systems for specific applications, is as much important as the development of motion analysis protocols based on them. For this reason, the goal of the 3-years research project described in this thesis was achieved first of all trying to correctly design the protocols based on inertial sensors, in terms of exploring and developing which features were suitable for the specific application of the protocols. The use of optoelectronic systems was necessary because they provided a gold standard and accurate measurement, which was used as a reference for the validation of the protocols based on inertial sensors. The protocols described in this thesis can be particularly helpful for rehabilitation centers in which the high cost of instrumentation or the limited working areas do not allow the use of stereophotogrammetry. Moreover, many applications requiring upper and lower limb motion analysis to be performed outside the laboratories will benefit from these protocols, for example performing gait analysis along the corridors. Out of the buildings, the condition of steady-state walking or the behavior of the prosthetic devices when encountering slopes or obstacles during walking can also be assessed. The application of inertial sensors on lower limb amputees presents conditions which are challenging for magnetometer-based systems, due to ferromagnetic material commonly adopted for the construction of idraulic components or motors. INAIL Prostheses Centre stimulated and, together with Xsens Technologies B.V. supported the development of additional methods for improving the accuracy of MTx in measuring the 3D kinematics for lower limb prostheses, with the results provided in this thesis. In the author’s opinion, this thesis and the motion analysis protocols based on inertial sensors here described, are a demonstration of how a strict collaboration between the industry, the clinical centers, the research laboratories, can improve the knowledge, exchange know-how, with the common goal to develop new application-oriented systems.