In this thesis, the Personal Concerns Inventory (PCI), a semi-structured interview based upon the Theory of Current Concerns (TCC), is adapted to measure offenders' motivation to change - the Personal Concerns Inventory: Offender Adaptation (PCI:OA). A literature review of treatment non-completion showed that non-completion was associated with increased recidivism and poor motivation is one possible reason for this. Assessment of motivation for treatment is, therefore, important The psychometric properties of the PCI:OA, a potential measure of motivation, are described. After a pilot study of the applicability of PCI:OA with 12 prisoners, 129 adult male prisoners were tested. The construct validity of the PCI:OA was found to be good, replicating the two factors found in the original PCI - adaptive motivation and maladaptive motivation. Test-retest correlations and internal consistency were poor. Concurrent validity was examined by correlating scores on the PCI:OA factors, the University of Rhode Island Change Assessment (a self-report measure of stage of change in therapy), the Treatment Motivation Questionnaire (a measure of the degree of internal and external motivation to enter treatment), and staff ratings of engagement. Only limited concurrent validity was found. The predictive validity of the PCI:OA was examined by survival analysis of factor scores against reconviction at mean 234 days post release. The PCI:OA factors did not predict reconviction. The concerns yielded from the PCI:OA interviews are described in a qualitative study. Finally, because the PCI:OA appeared to motivate offenders to address their problems, the PCI:OA was adapted to suit sex offenders refusing treatment (the PCI:OA (TR)). A pilot study of 18 male sex offenders showed that the treatment group were more likely to express a positive motivational shift than those who had not received the PCI:OA (TR). Overall, the PCI:OA has some potential to assess offenders' motivation to change, but further investigations of the PChOA's ability to predict who engages with treatment, makes gains from programmes, and changes their offending, are required.

As the prison population continues to rise year on year, the Prison Service has, as a consequence, become one of the most prominent providers of adult education in England and Wales. The female incarcerated demographic alone has doubled over the past decade. Despite this backdrop, prison education remains under-researched compared with mainstream learning settings. This doctoral research is based on in-depth case studies of two women's prisons, (HMP 'Freshfields' and HMP 'Arkham') examining how learning is understood and facilitated within strikingly contrasting open and closed settings. The study (employing strategies of ethnographic observation and semi-structured interviews) offers methodological insights in terms of employing successful qualitative strategies in closed off, socially excluded contexts. This thesis argues that the rigid government approach towards core prison curricula provision, framed around a ubiquitous, instrumentalist, basic skills framework, is largely misguided and rigidly simplistic. The case is made that alternative forms of literacy discourse more closely centred on the experience of prisoners, along with creative forms of learning, offer wider and more compelling benefits in terms of esteem and skills. The nature of the transition (educationally and emotionally) from closed to open regimes is explored, demonstrating ways in which the open prisons promote communities of practice more effectively than closed prisons. The underlying tension between employment and domestic skills for women in prison is also interrogated. In addition to arguing for an educational overhaul, the thesis concludes that a structural shift away from closed, barbed wire, institutions along with an overall reduction in numbers of prisoners is needed.

This thesis explores the development of hostels / approved premises and considers the existence of an 'unexplored' past that may help cast light on their current purposes. Drawing on historical and theoretical domains it constructs a hinterland from which to undertake critical exploration of their current practices and possible futures. A staged ethnographic study of two hostels is offered, with a four year gap in between to allow consideration as to whether hostels are changing and whether wider policy shifts impacting on probation more generally, can be seen to be shaping hostels' possible future(s). Observations, interviews, engagement in both formal and informal meetings with staff, residents and managers have been used to develop a view of hostels from the underside of practice. Critical theorising and exploration of hostels' past has been located against both the wider social and political shifts that may be seen to have impacted on the rehabilitative and re-integrative role of the hostel, and the emerging themes emanating from the ethnographic work. Key points of discussion include: an argument for a longer history of hostels than is currently suggested, an exploration of the relationship between hostels and the wider probation service and criminal justice system, the centrality of re-integration to rehabilitation and the impact of new punitiveness on hostels' changing role and function at the start of the 21st century. It is argued that a retreat from integration of offenders into society and a devaluing of their social agency and moral worth is now at risk of becoming accepted as part of hostels' 'new' public protection role. Consideration is given to how staff and residents may be experiencing the 'risk driven' changes that are taking place and what wider implications this works findings may have for policy, practice and rehabilitative theory. An alternative penology is offered that both takes account of hostels past and acknowledges their changed clientele.

The thesis examines in detail the potential for error and distortion in the criminal justice process and the concept of case construction which may contribute to wrongful convictions. The effectiveness of post conviction procedures is then also considered. Three detailed case studies are utilised to illustrate case construction, post conviction issues and current social/cultural factors that may impact on miscarriages of justice. The thesis argues that the "Uncertainty Principle" permeates the criminal justice process such that wrongful convictions are an inevitable risk and moreover that, while there are certain safeguards that protect from some of the problems of the past, there remains a high potential for such events to occur. This potential is exacerbated by the current political "convictionist" rhetoric and policy framework and by trends and developments in the media world and the consequent social influence of this. Further concerns are expressed at the continuing reluctance of post conviction agencies, most notably the Court of Appeal, to fully recognise the risks inherent in the system. Consequently post-conviction procedures continue to function on the principle of finality within the system and prioritise the protection of the decisions of the lower courts. It is argued that the principle should not be finality but uncertainty and that the protection of the innocent rather than the protection of the image of the system should be the paramount concern. The thesis considers the often illusory nature of some of the principles of the criminal justice system and utilises notions of "magical legalism" (Cohen 2001) and other psychological processes that may be involved in maintaining the illusions. Some recommendations for change are proposed, focusing primarily on the philosophical change that is required to change the principles originally designed to protect the innocent from illusion into reality.

The probation officers' narratives tended to focus on risk management and person-centred relationships with personality disordered offenders, even after recent role changes left them with less time for social work. The offender narratives suggest their social problems link to their claim for normative identity. It is complex and problematic as they aspire for an idealised hegemonic masculine position as part of the mainstream masculinity in society, often using crime as a means of expressing their belonging to this. They could be seen to be trying to recover from spoiled identities.

Background: The number of elderly prisoners has been increasing in Western countries over the past decade. In England and Wales the population of those aged 60 and over in prison has more than trebled in the last decade, and there are over 1000 elderly men in prison. There are no published studies of psychiatric morbidity in this population. Method: A stratified sample of 203 male sentenced prisoners aged over 59, from 15 prisons in England and Wales, representing one in five men in this age group, was interviewed using semistructured standardised instruments for psychiatric illness, personality disorder, and acute and chronic physical ill health. In addition, major illnesses and types of medication were recorded from their prison medical notes and prison reception health screen. The psychiatric characteristics of the sex offenders interviewed were compared with the non-sex offenders. Results: 53% (95% CI, 46-60%) of the elderly prisoners had a psychiatric diagnosis. The most common diagnoses were personality disorder (30% [24-36%]) and depressive illness (30% [23-36%]). No differences were found between the sex offenders (n=101) and the non-sex offenders (n=102) in the rates of psychiatric illness or personality disorder. Significant differences emerged at the level of personality traits with sex offenders having more schizoid and obsessive-compulsive traits compared with non-sex offenders. 85% of the elderly prisoners had one or more major illnesses reported in their medical records, and 83% reported at least one chronic illness on interview. The most common physical illnesses were cardiovascular, musculoskeletal and respiratory. Conclusions: The prevalence of depressive illness in this sample of elderly male prisoners was five times greater than found in other studies of younger adult male prisoners and community elderly men. The rate of physical illness in elderly prisoners was also higher than in other studies of younger prisoners and in surveys of the general population of a similar age. The growing numbers of elderly in prison pose specific challenges for prison health care services. In particular, underdetected, undertreated depressive illness in elderly prisoners is an increasing public health problem.

Prison Governors are both actors and directors within the Prison Service. They fulfil key roles at the boundaries of individual prisons and the wider contexts: organisational, social and political, within which prisons function. In this thesis I study aspects of the working lives of nine Governing Governors of public sector prisons in England and Wales from a performative, role-playing perspective. In addition to this I utilise two recently developed models to provide frameworks for examining two key areas of Governors’ roles: those of leadership and of well-being. I use literary collage and imaginative writing to present and interpret interview material together with self interviews and reflection on my experiences as a Ph.D. researcher, enabling me to show how my research developed and how I have developed as a researcher. In concluding my thesis I make a number of recommendations in the areas of leadership learning, well-being, further research and research methodology.

Despite well-established health benefits of physical exercise (Department of Health 2004; 2010; Pang et al., 2008), sport has played relatively little part in adult alcohol and drug treatment programmes. Limited research examines the contribution sporting programmes may make to people in their recovery from addiction. However, natural recovery research (overcoming addiction without formal treatment) identifies that meaningful activities are a key part of resolving alcohol and drug problems. At six-month intervals, this study conducted three individual, in-depth interviews with 19 male adults with substance misuse problems. They were engaging regularly on Second Chance, a sports programme for socially excluded groups, as part of their recovery from addiction. The study identified two patterns of behaviour. One group were desisting. In addition to Second Chance they had occupations which provided them with networks of support, and their narratives reflected hope and self-efficacy. The second group had few occupations, low self-efficacy, and high levels of anxiety, and their time was spent with other similarly situated people. Employing a developmental, life course theory of informal social controls (Laub and Sampson 2003), this study prospectively examined desistance from substance misuse in the context of Second Chance. The theory suggests that desistance and persistence from crime can be meaningfully understood by examining individuals’ routine activities, informal social controls and agency. Turning points are a key concept in life course theories, defined as change in the long term pathway which was initiated at an earlier point in time (Elder 1998). This study suggested that Second Chance was a “window of opportunity for change” (Groshkova and Best 2011:33), within which a turning point was being experienced by some of the interviewees. The turning point was an identity transformation, and this was facilitated through a confluence of meaningful routine activities, informal social controls, and, personal agency.

This thesis examines how three youth offending teams in the south of England accommodate young victims of crime in their delivery of restorative justice. By exploring, through interviews, observations and examination of case files, how youth offending team and youth offender panel practitioners deliver restorative justice, the thesis concludes that young victims are often alienated from restorative processes which tend to prioritise the welfare needs of young offenders. Young victims are regarded as difficult to include due to their presumed culpability and work with them is perceived to be a conflict of interests in services where the dominant ideology is for practitioners to prioritise the welfare needs of young offenders. Adopting a blend of methods, the study moves from grounded theory to case study methodology in its approach to data analysis. Commencing with grounded theory for analysis of interviews of practitioners in the first youth offending team, the methodological approach is repositioned within a case study methodology to enable the inclusion of the first setting as a case. Using theory emerging inductively from the first setting, data examination continues in the other two youth offending teams, independently testing the first developed theory in the other two settings, resulting in minor variations of the original theory. Cross-case analysis then produces a final theory which forms the basis for a discussion of pertinent findings in the context of wider academic debate, research and contemporary public policy. The thesis concludes that restorative justice processes in these settings are insensible to child victims of crime. Whilst acknowledging the limitations in terms of generalisability to the wider population, the thesis makes recommendations on how restorative justice can be restored, and how the involvement of young victims can be re-established, reinforced and realised. Recommendations include guidance on where responsibility may lie for implementing recommendations at strategic, managerial and practitioner levels.

This thesis examines the changing relationship between customary activities of the poor and economic change. The social crime debate is used to illustrate the historical importance of informal economic activity, both as a survival strategy and as a means of protest. Key issues of the experience in Britain will be highlighted, and issues such as self-interest will be placed within community toleration. Ironically, social criminal activities are also in the wider interests of the class of people from which social criminals themselves originate. The change from Feudalism and the origin of capitalism (particularly industrial capitalism) created the working class. The peasantry were increasingly displaced from the land, and habits suitable for work paid in cash were inculcated and forced upon people. Customary agricultural practices were gradually whittled away, but the working class changed these into perquisites and new customary work-based appropriation. Protest became located within the official structures of the labour movement, and increasingly orientated around the wage form. The post World War II economic boom encouraged standardisation and stabilisation of products, and within society itself. The onset of economic crises, beginning in the late 1960s, had increasingly global effects, and involved new markets encouraged by European integration. This changed the nature of (un)employment relations, the composition of the working class, consumption demands and possibilities, as well as creating a large and growing informal economy. This new casual and opportunistic, official/unofficial labour market, has meant a resurgence of social crime as a normal feature of survival. Shoplifting, tobacco and alcohol smuggling will be theoretically and practically examined; social crime content assessed; and protest capacity explored. Informant narratives highlight these key features of our time. The thesis further argues that crime has returned as a central aspect of culture.