The first chapter of the thesis critically reviews the research on juvenile violent and sexual offending and highlights the heterogeneity of such offenders in terms of those that persist and those that assault different types of victim. Research on juvenile stranger sex offenders and their offence characteristics is explored. Chapter 2 presents empirical research on the behavioural consistency and distinctiveness of juvenile stranger sex offending and whether case linkage can accurately identify the crimes of serial offenders. Calls from personality psychologists to consider the context of behaviour when investigating behavioural consistency are responded to with preliminary research into incorporating context in case linkage. Evidence for behavioural consistency and distinctiveness is reported for serial juvenile stranger sex offenders, however evidence for consistency in ‘if(victim behaviour)-then(offender behaviour)’ contingencies is less convincing. Chapter 3 investigates ways of prioritising sex offences for crime analysis. Whether juvenile serial stranger sex offenders escalate in their use of physical aggression is investigated with few “increasers” being identified. Preliminary findings suggest some characteristics on which increasers vs. non-increasers differ that might inform investigative risk assessment. However, escalation appears largely related to learning behaviour and progression to more elaborate sexual assaults. Preliminary findings suggest some offence behaviours that appear more characteristic of offences occurring later in a series. Chapter 4 investigates and contrasts group rape by juvenile and adult perpetrators. How applicable social psychological theories of group violence are to group rape is tested with findings suggesting that theories of group dynamics as well as social convergence are relevant. Further, aggression in group rapes appears both expressive and instrumental in purpose. Roles adopted by group members are investigated. Evidence of distinct leaders and followers in group rapes is identified using both Porter and Alison’s (2001) Scale of Influence and through the use of pragmatics theory. Additional roles are discussed.

This PhD thesis examines the issue of child trafficking in India and Thailand and the enforcement gap that exists in each state with respect to articles 34 and 35 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child, CRC 1989, to which both states are signatories. The thesis specifically examines the crime of child trafficking for the purpose of sexual exploitation in the commercial sex industry, CSI, a problem that has been well documented in both states. It should be noted at the onset that the enforcement regime in both states is weak, according to authoritative sources such as the United States Government Department of State Annual Trafficking in Persons Report. The research examines factors that propel child trafficking, data on prosecutions and convictions as well as domestic laws designed to inhibit and prosecute child trafficking offences. Critical issues that influence child trafficking in both states are examined. These include: gender discrimination; caste discrimination in India and features of caste discrimination in Thailand; poverty; inadequate law enforcement regimes; the incidence of police and judicial corruption and evidence of inadequate training on child trafficking issues and law. The thesis is focused solely on internal child trafficking within each state. Based upon the research, field work, and interviews, the argument is presented that the enforcement gap vis a vis child trafficking inherent in each state must be understood as not only a law enforcement problem but also as a problem rooted in a multitude of complex, interrelated factors. By examining these factors and their impact upon the enforcement gap and child trafficking to the CSI, new avenues of understanding may emerge that can inform policy on prevention, law enforcement and deterrence.

Popular constructions of rural England have perpetuated images of idyllic, problem free environments which have tended to mask the exclusionary processes that marginalise particular groups of rural 'others'. This includes minority ethnic 'others' whose experiences of rural life have been largely overlooked by academic studies. Previous research into 'race'-related issues has focused almost exclusively on the more urbanised areas of the country which typically contain larger minority ethnic populations, but such a focus has to some extent overshadowed the difficulties facing minority ethnic households living in rural areas where communities are traditionally less transient and feelings of isolation and alienation may be at a premium. The research upon which the thesis is based is drawn from predominantly qualitative material elicited from studies of rural towns and villages based in three English counties, and has been used to examine a range of issues relating to rural racism. The perceptions of minority ethnic groups are examined to identify their feelings about rural life, fear of racist harassment and experiences of victimisation, while the attitudes of established white rural communities are also assessed in an analysis of notions of community, identity and 'otherness' in a rural context. In addition, the thesis considers the way in which statutory and voluntary agencies respond to the needs of minority ethnic rural households and to problems of racist victimisation. The research findings illustrate the disturbing nature, extent and impact of racist victimisation in rural environments, and it is suggested that the 'invisibility' of the problem is compounded by weaknesses in agency responses and by the enduring appeal of idyllicised constructions of rurality. Romanticised notions of rural homogeneity, and the corresponding demonisation of the 'other', will inevitably have implications for minority ethnic households whose visible or cultural differences immediately set them apart from the prevailing norm of rural 'sameness'. At the same time though, the status of the 'other' may not be a permanent affiliation for all rural minority ethnic households, but instead is likely to be a more transient condition contingent to some extent upon individual circumstances and particular environments. Consequently, the thesis contends that the significance of racialised 'othering' in the rural will only be fully appreciated through a more nuanced conceptual understanding of the rural 'othering' process, and through a more holistic research agenda that takes account of the increasing diversification of rural space.

In a study of accidents among major air carriers, 88% of those involving human error could be attributed to problems with situation awareness (SA); similarly problems with SA were found to be the leading causal factor in a review of military aviation mishaps (Endsley, 1999). Studies of fratricide in air operations reflect similar issues pertaining to pilot error and situation awareness. It is argued in this thesis that pilot error is not an explanation but rather is something to be explained. Through an analysis facilitated by Actor Network Theory (ANT), the ‘black box’ of pilot error is examined revealing a de-centered accident aetiology residing within a network of heterogeneous elements characterized as the ‘hybrid collectif’ (Callon and Law, 1995). ANT is a theoretical perspective that has evolved to address the socio-technical domain. The black box associated with pilot/human error is the result of the relationality that obscures the fact that the black box is dependent on the network of heterogeneous elements and alliances of which it is a part. Within the black box are the silenced, deleted voices associated with the accident aetiology that emerge as hardwired politics and illusions of certainty. We therefore must suspend our traditional conceptualization of causality and rethink its nature in terms of conditions of possibilities. Synthesizing and synergizing perspectives from Systems Theory, Actor Network Theory, and Complexity Theory, the findings are far reaching regarding our understanding of accident aetiology pertaining to fratricide in air operations and complex socio-technical systems.

Interest in research on victim blaming has remained significant since it came to the fore in the 1970s. Victim blaming, of both male and female victims of rape, is central to this thesis in understanding the contribution to this of a number of motivational beliefs and stereotypes (i.e., rape myth acceptance, belief in a just world, and gender role traits/beliefs). As well as this, this thesis develops some understanding of rape perpetrator blaming, broadening the focus of research away from the victim. Most of all, this thesis seeks to increase the understanding of police attitudes concerning rape victims and the influence of specialist police training and experience in dealing with rape victims. In a series of studies, vignette scenarios were given to 558 students, 101 non-students, and 157 police officers to assess their blaming attitudes towards the rape victim (male and/or female) and perpetrator (male). These studies found a lack of consistent gender effects in blaming but a strong consistent relationship between rape myth acceptance and victim blaming. Belief in a just world and gender role traits/beliefs demonstrated little effect on rape victim and perpetrator blaming. In the police officers sample, job experience and receiving specialist training to deal with rape victims did not affect the levels of blaming engaged in. This thesis has important implications for policy and criminal justice systems and the findings are discussed in the context of these.

Education in prisons has been described as the ‘Cinderella Service’ in comparison to other educational contexts. It has only rarely been studied as an educational or criminological issue, with the result that there is limited published research on prison education in the UK. This research into prison education takes a teaching and learning perspective, with a focus on the uniqueness of teaching within a prison context. This study considers if, and how, teachers are prepared for working with prisoners with a diverse range of learning needs within the constraints of a prison environment. The empirical research was based on an interpretive, phenomenological approach which sought to find out the viewpoints and experiences of Heads of Offender Learning from college lead providers, education managers and teachers in prisons and an Ofsted Inspector of Education in prisons. In addition to questionnaires and interviews, observations of teaching sessions provided further insight into the realities of teaching in a prison context. Aspects of critical theory underpinned the approach to champion the cause of prison-based teachers who are largely marginalised by the wider educational community. Findings indicate that although there are many aspects that are beyond the control of teachers in prisons, particularly related to the prison regime, there are some that can be developed by education departments. These include more comprehensive knowledge of prisons, the nature of prisoners as learners, the pastoral role and the development of creative, personalised, collaborative approaches to teaching and learning within meaningful contexts. The thesis provides an overview of current practice and raises issues about the role of teachers in prisons, the training and support they are given, and the implications for future policy and practice.

Objective: This thesis reports an investigation into characteristics of sexual killers and their offences. Sexual killing was defined where there was a disclosure by the perpetrator that the killing had a sexual element, or there was evidence of sexual behaviour prior to or following the killing, or the victim’s clothes had been disturbed in a way that could not be explained by simply movement of the body. Consideration was given to perpetrators in terms of their childhood, adulthood, crimes and victim to understand better perpetrators of these crimes. Method: A template was developed to code the files of a sample of sexual killers for the presence or absence of items relevant to understanding perpetrators. Analysis of the data was undertaken to determine the characteristics of sexual killers. The data were examined to consider perpetrators who victimised a stranger, used a “hands-on” method of killing, disclosed fantasy, and were considered a loner at the time of the offence. Logistic regression analysis was carried out to identify variables that predicated an offender’s membership of these four groups. Results: Evidence was found to suggest that those perpetrators who victimise strangers are a distinct group, while perpetrators who use a “hands on” method of killing showed a more controlled killing with less excessive injury. In addition, perpetrators who disclosed fantasy experienced problems with parental and childhood social relationships and shared a number of characteristics with perpetrators who were considered loners. A developmental model of sexual killing based on the findings of this research was proposed. Conclusions: The findings supported previous research suggesting that being a loner is a characteristic of sexual killers and an indication that it is associated with those perpetrators who disclose fantasy. There was also a suggestion that the offences of sexual killers who victimise strangers are driven by sexual motivation and that strangulation itself is sexually significant. Future assessment of sexual killers should focus upon factors identified in this study to inform treatment and also consider the possible implications for risk assessment. Steps towards validation of the model proposed in this study will help with further understanding the development and motivation of sexual killers.

Stalking may be described as an extraordinary crime, one that is easy to commit but difficult to define and prosecute. This is because many activities of stalkers are ostensibly routine and harmless. Section one of this thesis however demonstrates that although English and Welsh law does not define criminal stalking, the general public hold shared ideas on what does and does not constitute stalking behaviour. It is concluded that anti-stalking legislation that does not tightly prescribe stalking acts may best capture public concerns about this highly prevalent form of harassment. Further, researchers in different countries are investigating the same phenomenon in that previous studies have detailed similar patterns of stalker behaviour. Section two reports two victim surveys that provide a preliminary picture of stalking experiences in the United Kingdom. These indicate that both stalking and the victims' reaction to it are changeable rather than constant, that any person can become a victim of stalking, and that stalkers themselves are a diverse group. Section three deals with the classification of stalkers. First, one specific classificatory factor, the nature of the stalker-victim prior relationship, is focused upon. Evidence that ex-partner stalkers are the relational group most likely to be violent toward their victims is provided, although stranger stalkers are most likely to be convicted for stalking activities. Next, a vignette study demonstrates how social psychological theory can account for the misattribution of ex-partner stalkers' behaviour. Finally, a taxonomy of stalkers that was specifically created for use by law enforcement agencies is presented. This classification illustrates how different interventions can have varying success according to the type of stalking involved. More generally, this thesis confirms some previous work for the first time with British samples, and provides practical insight into the course and nature of stalking as it occurs in the United Kingdom.

Through a series of studies, the ways in which youths conceptualise anti-social behaviour, and evaluate and modify their judgements about anti-social behaviours is examined. This research examines and proposes a model linking conceptualisations, attitudes, and behaviour which takes into account the manner in which attitudes can change according to the perceived target status of the victim. The proposed model contextualizes Heider's Balance theory (1958) in an intervention context in which target status and reconceptualisation playa central role. The first set of analyses examined the ways in which youths conceptualise anti-social behaviour the Multiple Sorting Task. Data was analysed using Multiple Scalogram Analysis (MSA). Conceptualisations were compared by age and offending history. The second set of analyses examines the structure of youth attitudes towards antisocial behaviour using a self-report questionnaire . It is argued that participant attitudes are a function of the target or victim relative to the offender; the notion of a target status resides within a socio-cultural framework of rights and duties in society (Moghaddam & Vuksanovic, 1990; Moghaddam, 2000). Smallest Space Analysis (SSA-1) revealed general themes of pro-social and anti-social behaviours and specific themes in relation to the anonymous and familiar target status relative to the offender The third set of analyses is based a 'before and after' study of a programme targeting fire-related anti-social behaviour. Smallest Space Analysis was used to examine the structural aspects of attitude change before and after the intervention. This analysis revealed the ways is which attitudes towards specific behaviours are conceptualised and re-conceptualised in relation to each other. The process of attitude change is discussed in relation to Heider's Balance Theory and discusses the role of a change in target status relative to the offender as a key feature ofattitude change. The implications of these findings for understanding-youth anti-social behaviour are discussed. Applications of these findings in relation to future programmes targeting anti-social behaviour are outlined, and future directions for research into youth conceptualisations, attitude, and attitude change are proposed.

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