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This thesis investigates the standardisation of Modern Scottish Gaelic orthography from the mid-eighteenth century to the twenty-first. It presents the results of the first corpus-based analysis of Modern Scottish Gaelic orthographic development combined with an analytic approach that places orthographic choices in their sociolinguistic context. The theoretical framework behind the analysis centres on discussion of how the language ideologies of the phonographic ideal, historicism, autonomy, vernacularism and the ideology of the standard itself have shaped orthographic conventions and debates. It argues that current spelling norms reflect an orthography that is the result of compromise, historical factors and pragmatic function. The research uses a digital corpus to examine how three particular features have been used over time: the dialect variation between < eu > and < ia >; variation in s + stop consonant clusters (sd/st, sg/sc, sb/sp); and the use of the grave and acute accents. Evidence is drawn from the Corpas na Gàidhlig electronic corpus created at the University of Glasgow: the sub-corpus used in this study includes 117 published texts representing a period of over 250 years from 1750 to 2007, and a total size of over four and a quarter million words. The results confirm a key period of reform between 1750 and the early nineteenth century, and thereafter a settled norm being established in the early nineteenth century. Since then, some variation has been acceptable although changes and reform of some features have centred on increasing uniformity and regularisation.

This dissertation draws upon local aesthetic attitudes held by members of the elder generation of first-language Scottish Gaelic speakers in Cape Breton Island, Canada towards various forms of communally-based cultural expression as conceived through metaphor. Through such engagement one begins to sense the central role of emplaced identity alongside embodied experience in describing these forms. In many ways, to the ethnographic fieldworker, this is uncharted territory. Here fieldwork functions within emic models of the cèilidh (visit) through collective social engagement in seanchas, an intracultural form of metalinguistic and metacultural discourse. Such a methodological approach facilitates in unveiling an intersubjective understanding of past, present and future acts, the forging of collective identity in the social world and finding meaning in cultural expression. In the context of this dissertation, what began as a seanchas-based exploration into local ethnoaesthetic attitudes revealed a wealth of metaphor in various abstractions arising out of our shared discourse. Such organically yet creatively conceived metaphors function between that which is symbolic and habitual, capable of crossing the boundaries of genre and breaking-down the partitions of that which is at once deemed abstract and concrete. Through the conceptual metaphor theories of George Lakoff and Mark Johnson among others, this works employs a dynamic system of interpretation that, when working in this ethnolinguistic context, makes full use of the available body of cultural and linguistic knowledge both synchronically and diachronically. This ethnography of metaphor, therefore, follows a pathway arising out of a sequential understanding of sensory experience in interpreting both identity and aesthetic thought as expressed by these Scottish Gaels. Beginning with individual orientation in time and space through cultural, social and emotional engagement with both the physical and cognitive landscape, the ethnography goes on to explore both a synaesthetic and kinaesthetic awareness of the various ways in which we conceive expressive sound in its flow. Within this conceptual metaphor framework a system is unveiled in which the expression of communal tradition is seen as emanating from a shared cridhe (heart/centre). Subsequently, the transmission of this knowledge is conceptualised among encultured individuals as capable of being metaphorically eaten and, therefore, (re)internalised in the body. Such an understanding is intrinsically linked to the mutual aesthetic appreciation of language and music through their blas (taste). Ultimately, these metaphors are rooted in an integrated system oriented towards the collective attainment of social wellbeing and a principal desire to sustain that which they serve to describe.

This thesis explores the measurement of adult second language (L2) oral proficiency in Scottish Gaelic (henceforth Gaelic). Gaelic is a minority language in Scotland, and is currently the object of a major effort to reverse language shift. Adult L2 users of Gaelic have been identified as key agents in this effort, but some weaknesses in adult Gaelic language-in-education policy are making it difficult for adult L2 users to fulfil this role. One such weakness is the absence of an empirically-derived means of assessing proficiency in Gaelic, through which adult L2 users and their teachers can assess their progress. This project aims to address this weakness. Data from two tasks — an interview and a narrative — performed by adult L2 users of Gaelic are analysed from the perspective of the complexity, accuracy, and fluency framework, as the three main dimensions of proficiency. Data are also analysed for Communicative Adequacy, using raters’ judgements. These data provide the first examination of Gaelic L2 proficiency from the perspective of second language acquisition (SLA) research. Adult L2 users of Gaelic have a wide range of learning experiences and motivations for learning the language. This study also explores these experiences and motivations, and discusses how these relate to proficiency. Results show that individuals’ Gaelic language skills interact in complex and unpredictable ways, depending on the nature of the task being performed. There is some evidence that the interview task encourages complexity and fluency, while the narrative task encourages accuracy at the expense of complexity. Results also show that the Communicative Adequacy rating scale developed for this project is valid and reliable, but that assessments of proficiency are subjective, to a large extent. Finally, the results confirm that adult L2 users of Gaelic draw on a vast range of experiences and are motivated in many different ways to learn the language. The outcomes of the project contribute to existing scholarship on the experiences and motivations of adult L2 users of Gaelic, confirming previous findings. The results also confirm previous findings in second language acquisition research that complexity, accuracy, fluency, and Communicative Adequacy in an L2 interact in complex ways, and that these interactions can be mediated by different task conditions. Finally, the outcomes of this exploratory research serve as the basis for future, more large-scale research into the acquisition of Gaelic as a second language by adults.

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Cette étude apporte un nouveau corpus à la description du paysage linguistique de Basse-Bretagne et participe de ce fait à une meilleure connaissance de la langue bretonne dans son ensemble. Les habitudes langagières constatées dans ce parler haut-vannetais seront décrites à partir d'exemples issus de langue parlée, et de langue chantée, collectés auprès de vingt-cinq locuteurs traditionnels originaires de Languidic, nés entre 1919 et 1950. Après avoir défini le terroir dialectal de ce breton, haut vannetais intérieur de transition, nous présentons son système vocalique, qui est un élément distinctif entre les parlers de ce sous-dialecte. Nous verrons quele timbre des voyelles peut être centralisé ou neutralisé selon leur quantité, qui est elle-même dépendante de celles des consonnes. Le système consonantique sera défini et exposé en tenant compte de la typologie du breton, étant une langue à mutations consonantiques. Le schéma accentuel, bien que principalement oxytonique, présente de nombreuses variations. Les mutations consonantiques des initiales s'organisent en trois principaux groupes, s'associant pour certains mutateurs, créant ainsi trois types de mutations hybrides, auxquels il faut ajouter trois mutations isolées. La morphologie et la syntaxe du parler sont exposées et tenant compte des différents usages, allant du registre familier quotidien, à la langue soutenue des chants, qui sont une des richesses de ce terroir, où les traditions orales ont su se maintenir jusqu'à nos jours. / This work presents a new study of work to the visual description of dialectology in the lower region of Brittany and participates in providing a better understanding of the Breton language in its entirety.The usages and customs of this micro-dialect from this part of Brittany known as haut-vannetais will be described from examples of spoken language and song. These are collected from twenty five traditional native speakers originally from Languidic, born between 1919 and 1950. After having defined the dialect area of this local speech, haut-vannetais in transition, we present its vocalic system, which in itself is a distinct element between different spoken sub dialects. We will see that the tone of vowels could be centralised or neutralised depending on their quantity. This also applies for the consonants. The consonantal system will be defined and exposed by considering the typology of Breton, with initial consonant mutations. The lexical stress, which is principally oxytonic presents numerous variations. There are three principal classes of mutation, three hybrid and three isolated mutations. The morphology and syntax of this sub dialect is exposed in consideration of different usages, ranging from familiar everyday language to received pronunciation used whilst singing, which give a richness to the region where the oral traditions have been retaineduntil today.

L’étude du processus de traditionalisation des chansons, c’est à dire les différentes étapes qui font de la création d’un auteur un élément de patrimoine musical commun à une population, se base sur un corpus de deux-cent-soixante-dix chants composés dans la première moitié du 20ème siècle en Bretagne. A cette époque, un fort élan de création traverse le pays et de nombreux auteurs s’attachent à renouveler le patrimoine musical, notamment dans le pays vannetais, secteur géographique de cette étude. La première partie de cette thèse étudie donc ce corpus en cherchant à mieux connaître les principaux auteurs de ces chants, en détaillant les thèmes qu’ils abordent et le contexte historique dans lesquels ilsévoluent ainsi qu’en examinant les caractéristiques littéraires et musicales de leurs oeuvres. Vient ensuite la question de la médiation de l’oeuvre par le biais de différents moyens tant oraux qu’écrits et notamment la presse afin qu’elle atteigne le public à laquelle elle est destinée. La seconde partie consiste à observer le devenir de ces chants un siècle plus tard. Ce travail se base sur le recensement et l’écoute de très nombreux collectages et la lecture de cahiers de chants pour déterminer quelles pièces ont survécu à leur création ou au contraire ont disparu ou n’ont même jamais existé. Il vise à essayer de comprendre quels critères permettent d’expliquer ce phénomène. À ce recensement s’ajoute l’analyse de dixcas d’étude avec l’observation détaillée de tous les collectages trouvés de ces exemples, complétée par des entretiens avec plusieurs chanteuses et chanteurs afin de percevoir leur ressenti à l’écoute de ces dix chants. Lors de ce travail, plusieurs constantes ont été relevées qui permettent de mieux appréhender les différentes transformations que subit un chant pour devenir traditionnel. La création d’un homme devient alors collective. / The study of the process of traditionalization of songs, that is to say the various steps that make the creation of an author a piece of musical heritage common to a population, is based on a corpus of two hundred and seventy songs composed in the first half of the 20th century in Brittany. At this time, a strong impetus of creation crosses the country and many authorsstrive to renew the musical heritage, especially in the country of Vannes, geographical area of this study. The first part of this thesis studies this corpus by seeking to better understand the main authors of these songs, detailing the themes they cover and the historical context in which they evolve, as well as examining the literary and musical characteristics of their songs. Then comes the question of the mediation of the songs through various means, both oral and written, and in particular the press, so that it reaches the public for whom it is intended. The second part is to observe the fate of these songs a century later. This work is based on counting and listening to numerous collections and the reading of songbooks to determine which pieces survived their creation or on the contrary have disappeared or never even existed. It aims to try to understand what criteria can explain this phenomenon. To this census is added the analysis of ten cases of study with the detailedobservation of all collected collections of these examples, completed by interviews with several singers in order to perceive their feelings by listening to these ten songs. During this work, several constants were noted that allow to better understand the different transformations that a song undergoes to become traditional. The creation of a man then becomes collective.

Gaelic-medium education (GME) as it exists today started in 1985, when two classes offering instruction through the medium of Gaelic opened within primary schools in Glasgow and Inverness. GME grew rapidly throughout the first decade of its availability, and 1258 students were enrolled in the system by 1995. This thesis examines outcomes of this system in terms of the degree to which former pupils who started in GME during this period continue to use Gaelic in their daily lives, and provides an assessment of their language ideologies and attitudes. The 2011 census showed a diminution in the decline of Gaelic speakers in Scotland, but marginal growth of 0.1% was recorded in the number of speakers under the age of 20. Whilst this growth has been understood by politicians and policy-makers as evidence of the role of GME in revitalising the language, the census figures give a limited picture of the actual language practices of reported speakers, the extent to which they use Gaelic, or of their beliefs, feelings and attitudes regarding the language. Internationally, little research appears to have been done on the life trajectories of adults who received a bilingual education through a minority language; that is to say, on the effect that the bilingual classroom has on such individuals’ relationship to the language after formal schooling is completed. The first students to receive GME at primary school are now in their late 20s and early 30s, and prospects for the maintenance and intergenerational transmission of Gaelic by this group are currently unknown. The principal research questions of this investigation comprise the following: - What role does Gaelic play in the day-to-day lives of former Gaelic-medium students who started in GME during the first decade of its availability; how and when do they use the language? - What sets of beliefs and language ideologies do these Gaelic-medium educated adults express in relation to Gaelic? - How do these beliefs and ideologies relate to their actual language practices, to their attitudes concerning the language, and to future prospects for the maintenance of Gaelic? Through a combination of qualitative and quantitative research methods, I provide an assessment of Gaelic use, language ideologies and attitudes among a sample of 130 Gaelic-medium educated adults. A thematic, ethnography of speaking methodology is employed to analyse qualitative data from semi-structured interviews with 46 informants. Additionally, responses to an electronic questionnaire are evaluated by statistical analysis using Spearman’s rank order correlation co-efficient to investigate the relationships between non-parametric variables of reported language use, ability, socialisation and attitudes. The results are discussed with reference to extensive research literatures on language, culture and identity, language revitalisation in the international context, and the perceived limitations of GME which have previously been identified with regard to the revitalisation of Gaelic.

No description available.

This thesis deals with the topic of compounding in Scottish Gaelic, in particular the relationship between marked adjective + noun compounds (e.g. deagh oidhche ‘good night’) and their unmarked noun + adjective alternatives (e.g. oidhche mhath, literally ‘night good’). The first part of the thesis surveys the relevant linguistic literature on compounding, with a specific focus on compounding in Celtic languages, and the research question for the investigation is specified as follows: in which circumstances do Gaelic speakers use the marked adjective + noun constructions in contrast to the umarked alternatives? The investigation itself consists of two experimental studies. The first of these is a corpus study using a 2.5 million word, mainly 20th century subcorpus of Corpas na Gàidhlig, a 19 million word corpus of Scottish Gaelic texts covering a range of genres, dialects and historical periods. In the course of this study, all phrases in which these adjectives occurred were collected and analysed. To annotate data the freeware AntConc concordance package was used, followed by a statistic analysis of the annotated phrases. A range of hypotheses were developed as a result of the corpus study, for example: (a) the role of conceptuality, subjectivity and emphasis in the use of preposed adjectives as opposed to their plain counterpart; (b) the religious register of ma(i)th good; and (c) the role of contrast in the use of attributive plain adjective aosta compared with the highly productive use of the preposed adjective seann- to convey the meaning ʻold’. The second experimental study involved interviews with native speakers, with the aim of providing further evidence relating to these hypotheses. 10 interviews were conducted with native speakers of Gaelic, mainly applying pictures and translations of the relevant adjectival phrases, investigating the meaning, stress pattern and hyphenation of these, as well as the default adjectives in loan words or with tangible nouns (e.g. vehicles, animals), etc. This combined methodology revealed various factors that influence the choice between marked adjective + noun and unmarked noun + adjective constructions, including: (a) dialect (with the overall use of preceding adjectives in South Uist, but the preference for math ʻgood’ in Lewis); (b) register (ma(i)th in religious texts); (c) conceptualisation in the vocabulary (by the preceding adjectives deagh- ʻgood’ and droch- ʻbad’ qualifying abstract concepts, whereas the plain adjectives math ʻgood’ and dona ʻbad’ tangible and countable nouns); (d) pragmatic factors such as the emphatic nature of deagh- as opposed to math; and (e) grammatical factors (see the use of deagh-/droch- in subjunctive clauses, particularly in time expressions).