As recentes descobertas de reservas de petróleo no pré-sal, representam uma grande oportunidade e desafio para a Petrobrás e demais indústrias de exploração e extração do petróleo. As exigências quanto aos materiais mais resistentes à corrosão e que conciliam boa resistência mecânica são cada vez maiores, devido aos constantes esforços dinâmicos que os equipamentos estarão sujeitos, pois os componentes estruturais serão submetidos à grande lâmina de água, ocorrência que as companhias exploradoras terão que superar. A otimização de materiais e equipamentos que podem melhorar a performance nas explorações do pré-sal tem sido a grande busca do setor nos últimos anos, muitos deles precisam ser testados e atestados quanto sua resistência à propagação de trincas, uma vez que, serão submetidos a oscilações devido as movimentações das marés e as condições de alta severidade a que serão expostos. Para suportar as condições de exposições com H2S, resistência a corrosão por pitting e resistência mecânica, porcas e parafusos têm sido fabricados com o Inconel 625, essas peças são estruturais e de extrema importância para a prospecção do petróleo. Após todas as etapas de fabricação, conformação, tratamento térmico e laminação a frio, o material foi caracterizado, realizou-se ensaio de metalografia que apresentou tamanhos de grão 7 e 8 conforme norma ASTM E112. Uma das premissas para a realização desse trabalho está nas condições que o material será exposto em situações acidentais, conforme informações da própria Petrobrás, em caso de vazamentos, os do tipo estruturais podem ser submetidos a temperaturas criogênicas de -100°C, -120°C e até -190°C devido ao vazamento de gases. Assim, o material foi caracterizado em temperaturas criogênicas através dos ensaios de tração, impacto e de CTOD. No ensaio de tração foi observado para as diferentes temperaturas criogênicas que apesar do aumento na resistência do material, da ordem de 787 MPa, o Inconel 625 manteve um alongamento acima de 40%. Nos resultados de Impacto a tenacidade se manteve acima de 200 J e não foi notada a curva de transição dúctil-frágil, mesmo para temperaturas tão baixas. No ensaio de CTOD utilizou-se corpos de prova de flexão (SENB) no ensaio de tenacidade à fratura, de acordo com a norma ASTM E1290.A componente plástica da abertura da boca do entalhe na temperatura de -190°C, pior caso, se manteve em 1,52 mm em média. Mediante a todos os resultados obtidos, pode-se afirmar que o aumento da resistência do Inconel 625 pelo processo de encruamento, não impossibilita sua aplicação para temperaturas criogênicas, mantendo sua capacidade de se deformar apreciavelmente antes de se romper. / Recently oil and gas discoveries in the Pre-Salt layer represent a huge exploration potential in Brazil, however, the technological challenges for the exploitation of these mineral resources are immense and therefore have motivated the development of studies looking for efficient methods and materials for their productions. The requirements about materials more corrosion resistance and mechanical resistance have been more frequently, as a result of high deep layer to explore the petroleum. The materials and equipment optimization to improve the performance in the pre-salt exploration have been the big search for oil and gas companies in the last years, but this materials must be testing in the crack propagation, because, this materials must resistance by oscillations, as consequence of ocean movements and others difficult situations that the materials must be support. To support H2S conditions, corrosion resistance by pitting corrosion and high mechanical resistance, bolts and nuts have been manufactured with Inconel 625, these products are structural and they are extreme importance to petroleum exploration. After all manufacturing operations, hot worked heat treatment and cold worked, the material was studied, and it was realized micrographic testing that result in grain size 7 and 8, in accordance ASTM E112 standard. One of premise to realized this paper are in the conditions that the material will be supported in accident situations, in agreement of Petrobras information, in the gases scape accidents, the structure materials can be exposed in cryogenically temperatures of -100°C, -120°C until -190°C. Therefore, the material was studied in cryogenically temperatures throw tensile testing, impact testing and CTOD. In the tensile testing was noted to different kind of cryogenically temperatures, same with more mechanical resistance, 787 MPa yield strength, the Inconel 625 has kept the 40% elongation. In the impact testing the notch toughness as kept above 200 J and it was not seen the transition ductile-Brittle in the low temperatures. In the CTOD testing was used bending test specimens (SENB) in the fracture toughness test for the Inconel 625, in agreement with the ASTM E1290 standard. The specimens was testing in tension and CTOD test in low temperatures: -100°C, -120°C and -190°C.The Clip gage displacement was recorded in the -190°C temperature with 1,52 mm average, this is the worse situation. Analyzing all the results, can be considered that the growth mechanical resistance of Inconel 625 by cold worked process, allow your application with cryogenically situations and the material has kept your ability to be well deformed before the crack.

As recentes descobertas de petróleo e gás na camada do Pré-sal representam um enorme potencial exploratório no Brasil, entretanto, os desafios tecnológicos para a exploração desses recursos minerais são imensos e, consequentemente, têm motivado o desenvolvimento de estudos voltados a métodos e materiais eficientes para suas produções. Os tubos condutores de petróleo e gás são denominados de elevadores catenários ou do inglês \"risers\", e são elementos que necessariamente são soldados e possuem fundamental importância nessa cadeia produtiva, pois transportam petróleo e gás natural do fundo do mar à plataforma, estando sujeitos a carregamentos dinâmicos (fadiga) durante sua operação. Adicionalmente, um dos problemas centrais à produção de óleo e gás das reservas do Pré-Sal está diretamente associado a meios altamente corrosivos, tais como H2S e CO2. Uma forma mais barata de proteção dos tubos é a aplicação de uma camada de um material metálico resistente à corrosão na parte interna desses tubos (clad). Assim, a união entre esses tubos para formação dos \"risers\" deve ser realizada pelo emprego de soldas circunferenciais de ligas igualmente resistentes à corrosão. Nesse contexto, como os elementos soldados são considerados possuir defeitos do tipo trinca, para a garantia de sua integridade estrutural quando submetidos a carregamentos cíclicos, é necessário o conhecimento das taxas de propagação de trinca por fadiga da solda circunferencial. Assim, neste trabalho, foram realizados ensaios de propagação de trinca por fadiga na região da solda circunferencial de Inconel® 625 realizada em tubo de aço API 5L X65 cladeado, utilizando corpos de prova do tipo SEN(B) (Single Edge Notch Bending) com relações entre espessura e largura (B/W) iguais a 0,5, 1 e 2. O propósito central deste trabalho foi de obter a curva da taxa de propagação de trinca por fadiga (da/dN) versus a variação do fator de intensidade de tensão (ΔK) para o metal de solda por meio de ensaios normatizados, utilizando diferentes técnicas de acompanhamento e medição da trinca. A monitoração de crescimento da trinca foi feita por três técnicas: variação da flexibilidade elástica (VFE), queda de potencial elétrico (QPE) e análise de imagem (Ai). Os resultados mostraram que as diferentes relações B/W utilizadas no estudo não alteraram significantemente as taxas de propagação de trinca por fadiga, respeitado que a propagação aconteceu em condições de escoamento em pequena escala na frente da trinca. Os resultados de propagação de trinca por fadiga permitiram a obtenção das regiões I e II da curva da/dN versus ΔK para o metal de solda. O valor de ΔKlim obtido para o mesmo foi em torno de 11,8 MPa.m1/2 e os valores encontrados das constantes experimentais C e m da equação de Paris-Erdogan foram respectivamente iguais a 1,55 x10-10 [(mm/ciclo)/(MPa.m1/2)m] e 4,15. A propagação de trinca no metal de solda deu-se por deformação plástica, com a formação de estrias de fadiga. / Recent oil and gas discoveries in the Pre-Salt layer represent a huge exploration potential in Brazil, however, the technological challenges for the exploitation of these mineral resources are immense and therefore have motivated the development of studies looking for efficient methods and materials for their productions. The oil and gas pipellines, called risers, are elements that are necessarily welded and have fundamental importance in the production chain, since they transport oil and natural gas from the sea bed to the platforms and are subject to dynamic loads (fatigue) during operation. Additionally, one of the central problems in the production of oil and gas in the Pre-Salt reserves is directly associated with a highly corrosive media, such as H2S and CO2. A cheaper way to protect the pipelines from these medias is applying a protective layer of a corrosion resistant metal on the inner diameter of these pipes, creating a cladded pipe. Thus, a joining process of these pipes to form the risers must be carried out by the use of girth welds with a corrosion resistance material similar to the clad metal. As the welded structures are seen as potential location of \"crack like\" defects, to ensure the structural integrity of such component when subjected to repetitive loading conditions, it is necessary to know the fatigue crack growth rates for the girth weld. Therefore, in this work it was carried out fatigue crack propagation tests in the weld region of an API 5L X65 cladded pipe with Inconel® 625, girth welded using Inconel® 625 electrodes. From the welded region, Single Edge Notch Bending specimens, SEN(B), were removed with different thickness and width ratios (B/W= 0.5, 1, and 2). From the fatigue tests, the crack propagation rates (da/dN) as function of the variation of the stress intensity factor (ΔK), were determined for the weld metal, using different crack size measurement techniques: the elastic compliance (EC), electric potential drop (EPD) and image analysis (IA). The results showed that the different B/W ratios used in study did not modified significantly the fatigue crack growth rates, considering that crack propagation took place under small scale yielding conditions. The results of fatigue crack growth tests allowed to obtain the regions I and II of da/dN x ΔK curves for the weld metal. The ΔKth value obtained for the weld metal was around 11,8 MPa.m1/2 and the found values of the experimental constants C and m of Paris-Erdogan\'s equation were respectively equal to 1,55 x10-10 [(mm/cycle)/( MPa.m1/2)m] and 4.15. The micromechanism of fatigue crack growth took place by plastic deformation, with the formation of fatigue striations.

As recentes descobertas de petróleo e gás na camada do Pré-sal representam um enorme potencial exploratório no Brasil, entretanto, os desafios tecnológicos para a exploração desses recursos minerais são imensos e, consequentemente, têm motivado o desenvolvimento de estudos voltados a métodos e materiais eficientes para suas produções. Os tubos condutores de petróleo e gás são denominados de elevadores catenários ou do inglês \"risers\", e são elementos que necessariamente são soldados e possuem fundamental importância nessa cadeia produtiva, pois transportam petróleo e gás natural do fundo do mar à plataforma, estando sujeitos a carregamentos dinâmicos (fadiga) durante sua operação. Adicionalmente, um dos problemas centrais à produção de óleo e gás das reservas do Pré-Sal está diretamente associado a meios altamente corrosivos, tais como H2S e CO2. Uma forma mais barata de proteção dos tubos é a aplicação de uma camada de um material metálico resistente à corrosão na parte interna desses tubos (clad). Assim, a união entre esses tubos para formação dos \"risers\" deve ser realizada pelo emprego de soldas circunferenciais de ligas igualmente resistentes à corrosão. Nesse contexto, como os elementos soldados são considerados possuir defeitos do tipo trinca, para a garantia de sua integridade estrutural quando submetidos a carregamentos cíclicos, é necessário o conhecimento das taxas de propagação de trinca por fadiga da solda circunferencial. Assim, neste trabalho, foram realizados ensaios de propagação de trinca por fadiga na região da solda circunferencial de Inconel® 625 realizada em tubo de aço API 5L X65 cladeado, utilizando corpos de prova do tipo SEN(B) (Single Edge Notch Bending) com relações entre espessura e largura (B/W) iguais a 0,5, 1 e 2. O propósito central deste trabalho foi de obter a curva da taxa de propagação de trinca por fadiga (da/dN) versus a variação do fator de intensidade de tensão (ΔK) para o metal de solda por meio de ensaios normatizados, utilizando diferentes técnicas de acompanhamento e medição da trinca. A monitoração de crescimento da trinca foi feita por três técnicas: variação da flexibilidade elástica (VFE), queda de potencial elétrico (QPE) e análise de imagem (Ai). Os resultados mostraram que as diferentes relações B/W utilizadas no estudo não alteraram significantemente as taxas de propagação de trinca por fadiga, respeitado que a propagação aconteceu em condições de escoamento em pequena escala na frente da trinca. Os resultados de propagação de trinca por fadiga permitiram a obtenção das regiões I e II da curva da/dN versus ΔK para o metal de solda. O valor de ΔKlim obtido para o mesmo foi em torno de 11,8 MPa.m1/2 e os valores encontrados das constantes experimentais C e m da equação de Paris-Erdogan foram respectivamente iguais a 1,55 x10-10 [(mm/ciclo)/(MPa.m1/2)m] e 4,15. A propagação de trinca no metal de solda deu-se por deformação plástica, com a formação de estrias de fadiga. / Recent oil and gas discoveries in the Pre-Salt layer represent a huge exploration potential in Brazil, however, the technological challenges for the exploitation of these mineral resources are immense and therefore have motivated the development of studies looking for efficient methods and materials for their productions. The oil and gas pipellines, called risers, are elements that are necessarily welded and have fundamental importance in the production chain, since they transport oil and natural gas from the sea bed to the platforms and are subject to dynamic loads (fatigue) during operation. Additionally, one of the central problems in the production of oil and gas in the Pre-Salt reserves is directly associated with a highly corrosive media, such as H2S and CO2. A cheaper way to protect the pipelines from these medias is applying a protective layer of a corrosion resistant metal on the inner diameter of these pipes, creating a cladded pipe. Thus, a joining process of these pipes to form the risers must be carried out by the use of girth welds with a corrosion resistance material similar to the clad metal. As the welded structures are seen as potential location of \"crack like\" defects, to ensure the structural integrity of such component when subjected to repetitive loading conditions, it is necessary to know the fatigue crack growth rates for the girth weld. Therefore, in this work it was carried out fatigue crack propagation tests in the weld region of an API 5L X65 cladded pipe with Inconel® 625, girth welded using Inconel® 625 electrodes. From the welded region, Single Edge Notch Bending specimens, SEN(B), were removed with different thickness and width ratios (B/W= 0.5, 1, and 2). From the fatigue tests, the crack propagation rates (da/dN) as function of the variation of the stress intensity factor (ΔK), were determined for the weld metal, using different crack size measurement techniques: the elastic compliance (EC), electric potential drop (EPD) and image analysis (IA). The results showed that the different B/W ratios used in study did not modified significantly the fatigue crack growth rates, considering that crack propagation took place under small scale yielding conditions. The results of fatigue crack growth tests allowed to obtain the regions I and II of da/dN x ΔK curves for the weld metal. The ΔKth value obtained for the weld metal was around 11,8 MPa.m1/2 and the found values of the experimental constants C and m of Paris-Erdogan\'s equation were respectively equal to 1,55 x10-10 [(mm/cycle)/( MPa.m1/2)m] and 4.15. The micromechanism of fatigue crack growth took place by plastic deformation, with the formation of fatigue striations.

Das Nachweisverfahren für die Berechnung der Dauerhaftigkeit von Verkehrsflächen in Asphaltbauweise beruht auf der Bewertung der mechanischen Beanspruchungen, hervorgerufen durch die Verkehrslasten und der Temperatur. Die Materialkennwerte der Asphalte sind stark von der Temperatur abhängig und somit ist eine möglichst exakte Beschreibung der thermischen Zustände von Straßenbefestigungen während der Nutzungszeit von hoher Bedeutung. Die in Deutschland gültigen Prognose- und Dimensionierungsverfahren berücksichtigen standardisierte Temperaturprofile, welche die Temperaturzustände in der Straßenbefestigung in Abhängigkeit der Oberflächentemperaturen charakterisieren. Randparameter wie die Stoffeigenschaften der Baustoffe oder die Geometrie der Straßenkonstruktionen haben danach keinen Einfluss auf die Wärmetransportvorgänge und die daraus ermittelten charakteristischen Temperaturzustände. In den vergangenen Jahren war der Einfluss des Klimawandels auf die lokalen klimatischen Bedingungen messbar. Besonders Dürren und Hitzewellen im Sommer führen zu deutlichen Schäden an der Natur. Dies lässt vermuten, dass die Änderung in Folge des Klimawandels einen erheblichen Einfluss auf die Temperaturzustände von Straßenbefestigungen haben. Der Schwerpunkt der vorliegenden Arbeit lag auf der Bestimmung eines Verfahrens, mit dessen Hilfe die klimatischen Einflüsse, die Geometrie der Straßenkonstruktion und die stoffspezifischen Materialparameter berücksichtigt werden können. Dazu wurden Simulationsergebnisse der thermischen Zustände von Straßenkonstruktion ausgewertet und ein erweitertes Analyseverfahren zur Bestimmung von repräsentativen Temperaturzuständen entwickelt. Mithilfe eines Clusterverfahrens konnten anhand der stündlichen Temperaturzustände maßgebende Profile (Mittelwertfunktionen) abgeleitet werden, welche die Charakteristiken der Straßenkonstruktion berücksichtigen. Die Mittelwertfunktionen weisen gegenüber den bisherigen Ansätzen eine deutlich verminderte Abweichung zwischen den realen Temperaturzuständen und den zugehörigen synthetisch generierten Temperaturverläufen auf. Mit dem Verfahren der Mittelwertfunktionen wurden detaillierte Analysen der Vulnerabilität der Verkehrsinfrastruktur in Deutschland auf Basis der prognostizierten Einflüsse infolge des Klimawandels durchgeführt. Zu diesem Zweck wurde für jeden Landkreis in Deutschland eine Simulation der thermischen und mechanischen Beanspruchungen durchgeführt und für die Ergebnisse der Nachweis auf Ermüdungsrissbildung an der Unterseite der Asphalttragschicht sowie der Entwicklung der Spurrinnentiefe in Anlehnung an das Dimensionierungsverfahren nach den \citet{RDOAsphalt09} geführt. Abschließend wurde an mehreren Fallbeispielen die Anwendbarkeit des Verfahrens der Mittelwertfunktionen gezeigt. Als Schlussfolgerung dieser Arbeit kann abgeleitet werden, dass die thermischen Zustände in Straßenbefestigungen durch Verwendung der Mittelwertfunktionen mit deutlich geringeren Abweichungen und somit einer höheren Güte im Dimensionierungsverfahren verwendet werden können. Weiterhin wurde festgestellt, dass der Klimawandel einen essenziellen Einfluss auf die Dauerhaftigkeit der Straßenbefestigungen in Asphaltbauweise in ganz Deutschland haben. Es ist zwingend notwendig, Maßnahmen aus den Erkenntnissen dieser Arbeit abzuleiten, um die Resilienz der Infrastruktur gegenüber dem Klimawandel zu erhöhen. / The procedure for dimensioning of asphalt pavements is based on the evaluation of the mechanical stresses caused by traffic loads and temperature effects. The material characteristics of asphalt are strongly dependent on temperature and hence, it is of utmost importance that we acquire the most accurate description of the thermal conditions of asphalt pavements during the life span. The prediction and dimensioning methods take standardised temperature profiles into account, which determine the temperature conditions in the asphalt layers depending on the characteristic surface temperature. Boundary parameters such as the material properties of building materials or the geometry of the pavements, therefore, have no influence on the heat transfer processes and the characteristic temperature conditions derived from them. In recent years, the influence of climate change on local climatic conditions has been quantifiable. Especially, droughts and heat waves in summer have caused significant damage to nature. This is indicative that the changes resulting due to climate change will indeed have a significant impact on the temperature conditions of asphalt pavements in the future. The main focus of this dissertation was the determination of a method that takes into account the climatic influences, the geometry of the road construction and the specific properties of the materials. For this purpose, the thermal conditions of pavements were evaluated by simulating results and an extended analysis method for the determination of relevant temperature conditions was developed. With the help of a cluster method, significant profiles (i.e. mean temperature functions) could be derived from the hourly temperature states, which take the characteristics of the road construction into account. Compared to the previous approaches, the mean temperature functions show a significantly reduced deviation between the real temperature states and the corresponding simulation-generated temperature curves. Using the method of mean temperature functions, detailed analysis of the vulnerability of the transport infrastructure in Germany were carried out on the basis of the predicted future impacts of climate change. For this purpose, a simulation of the thermal and mechanical stresses was carried out for each district in Germany. The results acquired were used to prove the existence of fatigue cracking on the underside of the asphalt base layer and the development of the rut depth based on the dimensioning method according to the \citet{RDOAsphalt09}. As a conclusion of this dissertation, it can be deduced that the thermal conditions in road pavements can be utilised in the dimensioning process by using the mean temperature functions with significantly lower deviations, which would result in superior quality pavements. Furthermore, it was found that climate change has an essential influence on the durability of asphalt pavements throughout Germany. It is imperative to adopt measures from the findings of this work in order to increase the resilience of the German infrastructure to climate change.

Mit dem Masterplan SACHSENTAKT 21 wollen wir zeigen, wie die Potenziale des Eisenbahnlandes Sachsen genutzt und entwickelt werden können. Diese Broschüre beschreibt die wesentlichen Kernelemente des GRÜNEN SACHSENTAKT 21. Die vollständige hundertseitige Studie können Sie von unserer Webseite herunterladen.:Vorwort 5 Mobilität für alle?! 7 Multimodalität statt Autofixierung 7 Klimaschutz und Ökoeffizienz 8 Masterplan SACHSENTAKT 21 10 Ein Verkehrsangebot mit Struktur 10 Integraler Taktfahrplan für Sachsen 13 CDU/FDP: Takte ausdünnen und Strecken stilllegen 14 GRÜNE: Verdopplung der Fahrgastzahlen und Streckenreaktivierung 15 Klare Zuständigkeiten durch drei Zweckverbände 16 Ein einheitlicher Tarif für ganz Sachsen 17 Für ein neues Bahngefühl 17 Finanzierung durch mehr Fahrgäste und höhere Effizienz 20 Referenzregionen 23 Ostsachsen 23 Südwestsachsen 25 Bahnstrecke Leipzig – Grimma – Döbeln – Meißen – Dresden 27 Publikationen und weiterführende Links 29 Abbildungsverzeichnis 30 Glossar 30

Diese Studienarbeit gibt einen Überblick über ausgewählte Teile des Softwareentwicklungsprozesses für sicherheitsrelevante Applikationen am Beispiel eines videobasierten Zugerkennungssystems. Eine IP-Kamera und ein externer Bildverarbeitungscomputer wurden dazu mit einer speziell entworfenen, verteilten Software ausgestattet. Die in Ada und C geschriebenen Teile kommunizieren dabei über ein dediziertes, UDP-basiertes Netzwerkprotokoll. Beide Programme wurden intensiv anhand verschiedener Techniken analysiert, die in der Norm EN 50128 festgelegt sind, welche sich speziell an Software für Eisenbahnsteuerungs- und überwachungssysteme richtet. Eine an der Norm orientierte Struktur mit Verweisen auf die diskutierten Techniken zu Beginn eines jeden Abschnitts erlaubt einen schnellen Vergleich mit den originalen Anforderungen des Normtexts. Zusammenfassend haben sich die Techniken bis auf wenige Ausnahmen als sehr geeignet für die praktische Entwicklung von sicherer Software erwiesen. Allerdings entbindet die Norm durch ihre teils sehr abstrakten Anforderungen das am Projekt beteiligte Personal in keinster Weise von seiner individuellen Verantwortung. Entsprechend sind die hier vorgestellten Techniken für andere Projekte nicht ohne Anpassungen zu übernehmen.:1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1.1 Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1.2 Description of the problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1.3 Real-time constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 1.4 Safety requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 2 Implementation details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 2.1 Camera type and output format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 2.2 Transfer Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 2.3 Real-world constrains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 2.4 Train Detection Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 3 EN 50128 requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 3.1 Software architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 3.1.1 Defensive Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 3.1.2 Fully Defined Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 3.1.3 Structured Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 3.1.4 Error Detecting and Correcting Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 3.1.5 Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 3.1.6 Alternative optionally required measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 3.2 Software Design and Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 3.2.1 Structured Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 3.2.2 Modular Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 3.2.3 Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 3.2.4 Design and Coding Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 3.2.5 Strongly Typed Programming Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 3.2.6 Alternative optionally required measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 3.3 Unit Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 4 Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 / This paper intends to give an overview of selected parts of the software development process for safety-relevant applications using the example of a video-based train detection. An IP-camera and an external image processing computer were equipped with a custom-built, distributed software system. Written in Ada and C, the system parts communicate via a dedicated UDP-based protocol. Both programs were subject to intense analysis according to measures laid down in the EN 50128 standard specifically targeted at software for railway control and protection systems. Preceding each section, a structure resembling the standard document with references to the discussed measures allows for easy comparison with the original requirements of EN 50128. In summary, the techniques have proven to be very suitable for practical safe software development in all but very few edge-cases. However, the highly abstract descriptive level of the standard requires the staff involved to accept an enormous personal responsibility throughout the entire development process. The specific measures carried out for this project may therefore not be equally applicable elsewhere.:1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1.1 Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1.2 Description of the problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1.3 Real-time constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 1.4 Safety requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 2 Implementation details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 2.1 Camera type and output format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 2.2 Transfer Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 2.3 Real-world constrains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 2.4 Train Detection Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 3 EN 50128 requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 3.1 Software architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 3.1.1 Defensive Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 3.1.2 Fully Defined Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 3.1.3 Structured Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 3.1.4 Error Detecting and Correcting Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 3.1.5 Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 3.1.6 Alternative optionally required measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 3.2 Software Design and Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 3.2.1 Structured Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 3.2.2 Modular Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 3.2.3 Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 3.2.4 Design and Coding Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 3.2.5 Strongly Typed Programming Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 3.2.6 Alternative optionally required measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 3.3 Unit Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 4 Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

Flooding is impossible to prevent completely, consequences of excess water can however, be reduced and often avoided via flood risk management. With the increase in impermeable surfaces, approaches that have the intention of imitating natural drainage to manage storm-water are known as Sustainable (Urban) Drainage Systems (SUDS). Pollutants from vehicles have been identified as a concern in the urban environment, with origins including exhaust emissions, engine oil leakage and erosion of vehicle components. Investigation of vegetated parking surfaces (VPS) to limit the impact of pollutants are scarce, therefore this study aims to determine pollution tolerance of grass species for use in VPSs, prior to investigating the effects that vehicles have on a vegetated surfaces and alternative methods in which to analyse them. A pot trial investigated effects of increasing oil concentrations on the growth of four grass species. F. rubra L. was found to tolerate contamination to a higher degree than the other species and L. perenne L. produced more cumulative biomass throughout the investigation. A parallel study determined that Ca, Cu, K, Mg, Mo, P and Zn accumulated in grass shoots, indicating that F. rubra L. and L. perenne L. may be suitable for further analysis. field trial focused on a regularly-used L. perenne L.-covered VPS at a local school, analysing the influence of vehicles on vegetated parking bays. Compaction and mean element concentrations increased across the VPS, with distance from the roadside. Use of mineral magnetism as a proxy for geochemical detection did not prove successful as no significant correlation was identified between magnetic susceptibility (χ) and element concentration. Use of GIS provided this study with an alternative method for data presentation. Usually covering large scale analyses, an interactive geovisual map of geochemical dispersal and compaction across the VPS provided a novel method of visualising results from an investigation of this scale.

As ligas a base de Níquel são frequentemente utilizadas na indústria do petróleo devido à elevada resistência mecânica e excelente resistência à corrosão. Neste cenário, a utilização da soldagem como etapa na fabricação de dutos rígidos de grande comprimento é inevitável. Assim, chapas da liga Inconel 625® foram unidas através do processo Friction Stir Welding (FSW). A soldagem foi executada com uma ferramenta de nitreto cúbico de boro policristalino e o inerente desta ferramenta foi analisado. Em um primeiro momento, na seleção de parâmetros de processo, diversas condições de processo foram analisadas para escolha da melhor solda. Após esta etapa, novas juntas soldadas foram produzidas com o parâmetro de processo adequado (velocidade de rotação da ferramenta de 200 rpm e velocidade de avanço de 1 mm/s). A caracterização da superfície de topo da solda foi realizada através da microscopia ótica, microscopia eletrônica de varredura, microdureza e ensaios de dobramento. Defeitos superficiais foram inspecionados com líquidos penetrantes. Além disso, os estados de tensões residuais foram obtidos com a difração de raios-X. Ainda, a resistência à corrosão localizada foi estudada com o ensaio de imersão em cloreto férrico e a determinação da temperatura crítica de pite (conhecida como CPT) Por fim, a susceptibilidade à corrosão intergranular foi avaliada com o ensaio Streicher Test. O processo de soldagem promoveu o refino de grão e o aumento de dureza na solda. As micrografias do metal de base (MB) mostraram carbonetos do tipo MC, M6C, M23C6. Por outro lado, a melhor junta soldada apresentou uma microestrutura livre de defeitos, homogênea, onde não foram percebidos carbonetos do tipo M6C, M23C6 nos contornos de grão, foi aprovada nos ensaios de dobramento, líquidos penetrantes e imersão em FeCl3. Entretanto, ocorreu o um desgaste da ferramenta, mas reduzido e aceitável para esta solda. Tensões residuais longitudinais trativas da ordem de 50 MPa foram observadas na zona de mistura. Considerando o valor médio, o MB alcançou uma CPT de 77 °C, enquanto no centro da solda a CPT foi de 86°C. A taxa de corrosão média alcançada após o ensaio de corrosão intergranular foi de 0,4406 mm/ano, valor que sugere uma boa qualidade da solda. / Nickel based alloys are often used in the oil and gas industry due to their great mechanical strenght as well as excelent corrosion resistance. In this scenario, welding as manufacturing step for long lenght rigid tubes is inevitable. Therefore, Inconel 625® sheets were joined by Friction Stir Welding (FSW). The welding was performed with a Polycrystalline Cubic Boron Nitride (pcBN) tool and the unavoidable tool wear was verified. At first, in the process parameter development step, different process conditions were analyzed for choosing the best welded joint. Afterwards, new welded joints were produced with the suitable process parameter (tool rotational speed of 200 rpm and welding speed of 1 mm/s). Top surface characterization of friction-stir-welded Inconel 625 was carried out by optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, microhardness and bending tests. Surface defects were verified by dye penetrant inspection (DPI). In addition, residual stress states were obtained by X-ray diffraction. Furthermore, localized corrosion resistance was studied by the immersion test in FeCl3 and the critical pitting temperature (CPT) determination. Finally, the susceptibility to intergranular corrosion was evaluated by Streicher Test. FSW process promoted grain refining as well as increased microhardness in the joint Base material micrographs showed different carbides as MC, M6C, M23C6. On the other hand, the best joint presented a sounds weld without defetcs, homogeneous microstructure, grain boundaries free of M6C, M23C6 carbides, approved in bending tests, DPI and the immersion test. However, a tool wear was also noted, but reduced and acceptable for this weld. Tensile longitudinal residual stresses of 50 MPa were observed in the stir zone. As an avarage, the base material CPT was 77 °C, while the CPT was 86 °C at the weld center. The mean corrosion rate after intergranular corrosion test was 0.4406 mm/year, a value which suggests a good weld quality.

As superligas de níquel apresentam boa combinação de resistência à corrosão e à oxidação, resistência mecânica, resistência à fadiga e resistência à fluência. Além disso, apresentam bom desempenho operacional em temperaturas próximas à temperatura de fusão da liga. Estudos apontam à possibilidade de se obter aço carbono revestido com a superliga de níquel Inconel 625 pelo processo de cladeamento e pelo processo de aspersão térmica. A presença de molibdênio na composição química do Inconel625 garante excelente resistência à corrosão por pites e por fresta, enquanto o nióbio confere alta soldabilidade e resistência à corrosão intergranular a essas ligas. O processo de soldagem é amplamente usado em processos industriais e pode ser aplicado em uma junta Inconel-Inconel, podendo modificar alguma propriedade dessa liga. O objetivo do presente trabalho é estudar uma junta soldada de Inconel 625, obtida pelo processo de soldagem por fusão a arco elétrico com o uso de eletrodo revestido ENiCrMo-3, quanto à morfologia estrutural, à dureza e à resistência à corrosão. A morfologia foi avaliada por microscopia óptica, por microscopia eletrônica de varredura e por espectroscopia de energia dispersiva. A propriedade mecânica de dureza foi avaliada a partir do perfil de microdureza Vickers ao longo da junta soldada Para avaliar a resistência à corrosão da junta soldada foram realizados os ensaios de polarização potenciodinâmica, reativação potenciodinâmica de varredura cíclica (norma ASTM G108-94), polarização potenciodinâmica cíclica e ensaio de imersão (norma ASTM G48-03). Também avaliou-se a susceptibilidade à corrosão por pites pela norma ASTM G61-86 a temperatura ambiente e a 90 ºC. Para a polarização potenciodinâmica, três diferentes eletrólitos foram empregados: 3,5% NaCl, 3,5% NaCl + 0,01 mol/L Na2S2O3 e 3,5% NaCl + 1M H2SO4. Os resultados obtidos mostraram que o metal de solda apresenta uma microestrutura dendrítica com precipitados de Nb e de Mo nas regiões interdendríticas. O desempenho quanto à resistência à corrosão foi satisfatório nos meios estudados, considerando as características dessas ligas. No entanto, a junta soldada apresentou maior suscetibilidade à corrosão por pites e à corrosão localizada comparativamente ao metal base. O filme passivo formado no metal base é melhor constituído do que o filme passivo formado no metal de solda. / Nickel superalloys show a good combination of corrosion, oxidation and creep resistance as well as mechanical and fatigue strength. These alloys can operate at temperatures close to their melting temperature. The Inconel 625 has desired characteristics for application in environments that require high corrosion resistance, such as in oil and gas exploitation. Some studies show the possibility of obtaining a coating of Inconel 625 onto carbon steel by the cladding process and by the thermal spray process. The molybdenum content in Inconel 625 ensures excellent resistance to pitting and crevice, while the niobium content gives high weldability to these alloys. The welding process is practically present in all industrial plants, so an Inconel-Inconel joint is unavoidable. However, the welding can lead to changes in the properties of these superalloys. Therefore, the present work aims to study the structural morphology, hardness and corrosion resistance of a welded joint of Inconel 625 obtained by the electric arc fusion welding process with ENICrMo-3 covered electrode. The morphology was evaluated by optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy and dispersive energy spectroscopy. Hardness was studied by Vickers microhardness profile along the welded joint. In order to evaluate the corrosion resistance of the welded joint, the Potentiodynamic polarization, potentiodynamic cyclic sweep reactivation (ASTM G108-94), cyclic potentiodynamic polarization and immersion test (ASTM G48-03) were performed Also susceptibility to pitting corrosion was assessed by ASTM G61-86 at room temperature and at 90 ° C. Potentiodynamic polarization curves were performed in three different solutions to evaluate the corrosion resistance: 3.5% NaCl, 3.5% NaCl + 0.01 mol / L Na2S2O3 and 3.5% NaCl + 1M H2SO4 The results show that the weld metal has a dendritic microstructure with precipitates of Nb and Mo in the interdendritic regions. The corrosion performance in environments close to the environments of possible applications was satisfactory considering the resistance of these alloys, but the specific welded joint was more susceptibility to corrosion by pits and localized corrosion. The passive film formed in the base metal was better formed than the passive film formed in the welded metal.

Superligas à base de níquel vêm sendo extensivamente utilizadas em diversas aplicações nas indústrias devido ao excelente comportamento mecânico e anticorrosivo. No entanto, essas ligas possuem certas particularidades que levam à necessidade de desenvolvimento de técnicas de inspeção e caracterização metalúrgica, como forma de garantir a integridade estrutural dos componentes fabricados com essas ligas. Neste trabalho, a técnica de correntes parasitas foi aplicada à superligas à base de níquel com duas propostas distintas: 1) Em um primeiro momento foi realizado o estudo da evolução microestrutural da liga Inconel 718 durante o processo de envelhecimento através da combinação do ensaio por correntes parasitas, análise de difração de raios-X, análise metalográfica, medidas de dureza e tamanho de grão. As medidas foram realizadas em amostras submetidas a diferentes ciclos de tratamentos térmicos variando entre 620-1035°C. Os resultados mostraram que as diferentes microestruturas do Inconel 718 têm efeitos distintos na condutividade elétrica quando medidos através da técnica de correntes parasitas. A influência da microestrutura na condutividade pode ser mostrada sendo devido à competição de dois efeitos sobre o espalhamento de elétrons: a purificação da matriz e a morfologia, distribuição e tamanho dos precipitados. A combinação dos valores de dureza e condutividade elétrica provou ser uma forma rápida e prática de determinar o nível de envelhecimento da liga; 2) Em um segundo momento foi desenvolvido um processo de otimização de sensores através de modelagem por elementos finitos (MEF). Através de uma metodologia de otimização, os parâmetros de construção e operação de um sensor foram otimizados para inspeção de defeitos superficiais e subsuperficiais esperados em materiais cladeados com Inconel 625. O sensor com a geometria ótima foi construído e testado a fim de verificar a eficiência do processo de otimização. Uma ótima correlação entre os resultados numéricos e experimentais foi encontrada e o sensor ótimo se mostrou eficiente na inspeção de pequenos defeitos superficiais e subsuperficiais na liga Inconel 625 quando operado nas frequências apropriadas. / Nickel-based superalloys have been extensively used in various industries due to its unique mechanical and corrosion behavior. However, these alloys show particular characteristics which lead to the need for specific inspection and metallurgical characterization techniques in order to ensure the structural integrity of components manufactured from these alloys. In this work , the eddy current technique was applied to nickel-base superalloys with two aims: 1 ) Firstly, the microstructural evolution of Inconel 718 during aging processes has been studied through a combination of eddy current testing, X-ray diffraction analysis, metallography, hardness and grain size measurements. Measurements were carried out in samples subjected to different heat treatment cycles between 620-1035°C. Results show that different microstructures of Inconel 718 have a distinguishable effect on electrical conductivity when this is measured through an appropriately sensitive technique (i.e. eddy current testing). The influence of microstructure on conductivity could be shown to be due to the competition between two effects on the scattering of electrons: matrix purification and precipitate size, distribution and morphology. A combination of hardness values and electrical properties proved to be a fast and practical way of determining the stage of aging of the alloy; 2) An optimization method of eddy current sensor design was developed through finite element modeling (FEM). Through a methodology of optimization, the construction and operation parameters of the sensor were optimized for inspection of superficial and subsuperficial defect, commonly found in weld overlay Inconel 625 claddings. A prototype of this sensor with the optimum geometry was built and tested on blocks identical to those considered in the models in order to verify the efficiency of the optimization process. A very good agreement between numerical and experimental results was found. Moreover, the optimal sensor was efficient to detect small surface and subsurface defects in Inconel 625 when operated at appropriate frequencies.