The optimisation of biogas digesters is crucial for further development of sustainable energy sources. In this research, an integrative approach was taken to understanding how this problem can be addressed including: seeking a better understanding of protein – surface interactions on the molecular level; larger scale experiments to screen the best materials for use in laboratory scale anaerobic digesters to influence microbial growth and biofilm development as well as analysis of farm-scale data using the ADM1 multiparameter model. The laboratory-scale experiments were undertaken to develop surfaces suitable for studying microbial immobilization. This work, currently using tertiary amines, amine oxides and comparator oligoethylene glycol studies the adsorption of two classic model proteins: lysozyme and fibrinogen using quartz crystal microbalance methods and represents important steps for selecting and exploring surface – protein interactions. The data showed that tertiary amine oxides are more resistant to nonspecific protein adsorption than the corresponding tertiary amines. Heat modified polyurethane foam was used to explore biofilm and planktonic phase microbial populations in a fixed film biogas reactor. After four weeks the foam was analysed by ‘next generation’ 454-sequencing to identify the influence of the supporting materials on microbial population residing in anaerobic digesters. The results revealed that Spirochaetes, Methanobacterium and Methanocorpusculum associated themselves with heat modified polyurethane foams. Finally, data from a farm-scale anaerobic digester (volatile fatty acid concentration, temperature and pH) have been gathered and entered into the ADM1 model, developed by the mathematical modelling group from Lund University, to mimic the behaviour of a laboratory scale 1.5 l reactor and identify improved conditions for methanogens stability. The combination of approaches described above will allow the identification of which parameters will enhance the operation of anaerobic digesters and has identified surfaces that promote adhesion of particular Bacteria and Archaea in order to increase biogas production.

This thesis introduces a new methodological approach to provide a framework for environmental health and socioeconomic perception that critically assesses the management of treated wastewater (TWW) reuse practice and options. The methodology combines Multi-Criteria decision Making (MCDM) and Rapid Impact Assessment Matrix (RIAM). The approach uses expert opinion to assess TWW reuse options and converts the qualitative subjective evaluation of experts into quantitative objective and numeric output. The methodology includes the use of a Driver Force, Pressure, State, Impact and Response (DPSIR) framework to analyse the current situation in a specific case study (Kuwait). The research identified the best available TWW reuse options for Kuwait and determined the essential environmental health and socioeconomic criteria affected by the practice of selected TWW reuse options. The latter include recreational and agricultural irrigation, firefighting and industrial and ruses, oil depressurization and groundwater recharge. Options where the public had direct contact with TWW, such as showering, cooking and drinking were rejected. Environmental health criteria were found to be the most significant criteria associated with TWW reuse practice and options, but given current heavy subsidies of wastewater treatment, distribution and transportation, the economic burden was also significant. Further research in this area is recommended to enable a reduction of pressures on freshwater resources through TWW reuse practice and this should be included within a wider context of integrated water management (IWM).

Electrocoagulation (EC) is an effective water and wastewater treatment technology; where the coagulants are generated in-situ by electrolytic oxidation of a sacrificial anode. In this technique, pollutant removal is done without adding chemicals; therefore, it remarkably reduces the sludge produced, and consequently reduces the cost of sludge handling. This method has been efficiently used to remove, up to 99%, of a wide range of pollutants such as heavy metals, oil, dyes, and fluoride. However, the EC technology still has a deficiency in the variety of reactor design, and its performance is highly influenced by the chemistry of the water being treated, especially the presence of organic matter (OM), as this inhibits heavy metal removal due to the formation OM-heavy metals complexes. The presence of heavy metals and OM in water resources is one of the most problematic pollutants in Hilla River, Babylon city, Iraq, which inhibits the application of the EC method in that area. Thus, the current study has been devoted to develop a new hybrid EC rector that can be applied to treat water drawn from Hilla River especially, and to treat water containing OM-heavy metals complexes. The aims of this study are therefore; firstly to examine the removal of heavy metals from drinking water in the presence of OM-heavy metal complexes using a new hybrid treatment method that utilises a combination of microwave-electrocoagulation (MW assisted-EC method). Secondly, to present a new configuration for an electrocoagulation reactor (FCER) that employs perforated plate flow columns (which are widely used in the chemical industry) to achieve water mixing, aeration, and temperature control processes. Additionally, the development of statistical models for the EC performance, recovery of hydrogen gas, and the removal of biological pollutants are other targets in the present project. Initially, the performance of the new flow column EC reactor (FCER) was validated in terms of water mixing efficiency, water aeration, and temperature controllability. The results were compared to those of traditional EC reactors. Then, the ability of the FCER to work as an EC unit was validated by treating different pollutants such as fluoride, nitrate, iron, and reactive black 5 (RB-5) dye from drinking water. Then, the ability of the new MW assisted-EC method to remove OM-heavy metal complexes was experimentally proved by treating synthetic water samples contain iron (Fe2+) ions and ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) (C10H16N2O8) (as organic matter). The results obtained showed that FCER achieved a complete water mixing efficiency, and increased the dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration by 110.6% within 10 min, and kept the temperature of water being treated within the range of 22-28 oC for 30 min of electrolysing. While the traditional reactors achieved water-mixing efficiency of 96.5%, increased the DO by 52.2%, and the temperature increased to about 32 oC over the same treatment period. Additionally, FCER was able to reduce fluoride, iron, nitrate, and RB-5 dye concentrations by 98%, 99.6%, 95.2%, 98.6%, respectively. In terms of OM-heavy metal complex removal (the novelty of the present work), the results obtained demonstrated that this novel method removes 92% of this refractory complex within 35 min of treatment at a power of 100 W, temperature of 100 oC, initial pH of 6, ID of 5 mm, and CD of 1.5 mA/cm2. While, the traditional treatment (EC only) removed only 69.6% of this complex under the same operating conditions. It is noteworthy to mention, the new MW assisted-EC method achieved 100% removal of culture-able activated sludge microorganisms ASM from drinking water, which could eliminate the need for costly separated biological treatment units. Statistically, empirical models were developed to reproduce the performance of FCER in terms of fluoride, nitrate, RB-5 dye, iron, and iron-EDTA complex removal. The R2 value for the models of fluoride, nitrate, RB-5 dye, iron, and iron-EDTA complex removal were, respectively, 0.823, 0.848, 0.798, 0.868, and 0.923. Economically, it has been found that the preliminary operating cost of the MW assisted-EC method is 0.628 US $/m3. Additionally, it has been found that the generated hydrogen gas from this new method could be used to reproduce about 2.82 kW/m3 of power, which is a promising amount of power on field scale plants. In conclusion, according to the obtained results, the new MW assisted-EC method is a safe promising alternative to the complicated, expensive, and time consuming traditional treatment methods, as it removes heavy metals in the presence of OM in a relatively short time without the need for chemical additives. Economically, the MW assisted-EC method reduces the need for separated biological treatment unit that require space, money, equipment, and time, because drinking water will be sterilised as it passes through the microwave field. The latter merit makes this new method a cost-effective alternative. Additionally, FCER reduces the need for external mixing and aeration devices that require extra power to work, which makes FCER a cost-effective alternative for traditional lab-scale EC units.

Les compartiments aquatiques sont pollués par des micropolluants d’origine anthropique, tels les produits pharmaceutiques. Ces pollutions sont principalement engendrées par le rejet continu des effluents des stations d’épuration les eaux naturelles. C’est pourquoi le premier objectif de ce travail fut de caractériser les capacités épuratoires des trois types de station d’épuration actuellement utilisées, les boues activées, les lagunages naturels et les filtres plantés. Les analyses des effluents ont démontré que l’épuration des produits pharmaceutiques dans ces stations est insuffisante. Il est donc nécessaire, notamment dans le cadre de le directive cadre sur l’eau, de penser à des traitements innovants et à bas coût. De part des propriétés d’adsorption significatives, les argiles naturelles comme les smectites sont des matériaux qui ont un potentiel en ce sens. Le second objectif de ce travail a donc été de mettre en interaction la smectite naturelle avec les produits pharmaceutiques dans différentes conditions expérimentales. En débutant par des conditions standards à concentrations dopées pour aboutir à des solutions naturelles. Les expérimentations ont également été menées sous différentes dynamiques pour vérifier l’adéquation du matériau choisi avec un usage en conditions industrielles. Les résultats démontrent que la smectite a une capacité d’adsorption significative sur une grande variété de produits pharmaceutiques et que cette capacité est meilleure dans des solutions complexes. Ceci permet de postuler que le matériau choisi peut représenter une solution à bas coût et efficace pour l’épuration des effluents des stations d’épuration. / The water compartments are contaminated by anthropic micropollutants, as pharmaceuticals. These pollutions are mainly due to the constant spillage of effluents in natural waters. That’s why the first objective of this study was to evaluate the removal capacity of three treatment chains, activated sludge, lagoon-based system and planted filter. The effluent analyses exhibited that the removal of pharmaceuticals in these sewage plants is insufficient. It is thus necessary to think about low cost and innovative purification solution especially framed by the water framework directive. Due to significant adsorptions properties, natural clay minerals as smectites have a potential in that way. The second objective of this work was thus to realize organo-mineral interactions between the smectite and pharmaceuticals in different experimental conditions. Beginning with standard conditions and boosted concentrations to finish with natural solutions. To verify the field use of the chosen material, differents dynamics were tested. Results demonstrated that the smectite has a significant sorption capacity on a wide variety of pharmaceuticals and that this capacity is enhanced in complex solutions. This permit to postulate, that the chosen material can represent an efficient low-cost solution for the purification of the effluents of sewage treatment plants.

This research focused on evaluating the water savings that could be achieved from Trade Effluent Recycling and Reuse (TERR) in the UK Food and Beverage Manufacturing Sector (FBM) and on identifying the current and future factors that can impact on the success of this application in the UK. The research data suggest that the water regenerated from a widespread application of TERR in the FBM can potentially satisfy 44% of future increases in water demand. However, it was evident from the research findings that there is a need to clarify implementation strategies and validate the safety, reliability and economic feasibility of TERR projects before this application can be approved by the salient stakeholders in the FBM. Alternative future scenarios were also developed to evaluate the impact that changes in the environmental and socio-economic domains (ESE) are likely to have on TERR in the FBM. It was evident from the narratives that emerged from these scenarios that future changes in ESE are likely to have a positive impact on the approval of TERR projects. The findings also highlight the key role that TERR can potentially play in improving the resilience of the UK against future water shortages through providing a significant percentage of the projected future increases in water demand.

Τα λύματα είναι επικίνδυνα για το πληθυσμό και το περιβάλλον γι’αυτό είναι απαραίτητη η επεξεργασία τους πριν την διάθεσή τους στους υδάτινους αποδέκτες. Η συγκέντρωση του φωσφόρου και του αζώτου αυξάνεται σημαντικά στα λύματα τα τελευταία χρόνια. Αυτά τα θρεπτικά συστατικά ευθύνονται άμεσα για τον ευτροφισμό. Αυτό που χρειάζεται δεν είναι μόνο η ελαχιστοποίηση του φωσφόρου αλλά και η ανακύκλωση του. Μια νέα μέθοδος απομάκρυνσης του φωσφόρου ως ανακυκλώσιμο προϊόν είναι η κρυσταλλοποίηση του στρουβίτη. Τα πλεονεκτήματα αυτής της ανάκτησης είναι η ταυτόχρονη και αποδοτική μείωση του P και του N, η χρήση του στρουβίτη ως βραδέως αποδεσμευόμενου λιπάσματος, η εξοικονόμηση πρώτων υλών και η εφαρμογή για την σταθεροποίηση αμμωδών η χαλαρά συνδεδεμένων εδαφών. Ο σκοπός της εργασίας αυτής είναι η μελέτη κινητικής της αυθόρμητης καταβύθισης του στρουβίτη σε υδατικό διάλυμα συνθετικού αποβλήτου, η διερεύνηση του ετερογενούς σχηματισμού στρουβίτη σε υπόστρωμα διοξειδίου του πυριτίου (SiO2) και κάποιες δοκιμές συσσωμάτωσης άμμου, σίλικας και ανθρακικού ασβεστίου σε κλίνες. Μελετήθηκε η κινητική της αυθόρμητης καταβύθισης του στρουβίτη σε υδατικό διάλυμα συνθετικού αποβλήτου σε συνθήκες pH κοντά στο 9.0 χωρίς υπόστρωμα, με υπόστρωμα, και σε σταθερό υπερκορεσμό παρουσία υποστρώματος. Το υπόστρωμα το οποίο χρησιμοποιήθηκε στα πειράματα ήταν σε όλες τις περιπτώσεις σίλικα. Στην παρούσα μελέτη τα υπέρκορα διαλύματα περιλάμβαναν μόνον ισομοριακές συγκεντρώσεις των ιόντων MgP 2+ P, POB4PB 3- P και NHB4PB + P τα οποία και αντιστοιχούν στο καταβυθιζόμενο στερεό. Στους 25P ο PC και σε ποσότητες υποστρώματος 0.05, 0.1, 0.2 g καταβυθίζονται λευκοί ορθορομβικοί κρύσταλλοι στρουβίτη. Βρέθηκε ότι οι χρόνοι επαγωγής οι οποίοι προηγούνται του σχηματισμού των υπερκρίσιμων πυρήνων αυξάνονται απότομα με την μείωση του υπερκορεσμού των διαλυμάτων. Στα πειράματα pH≈9.0 κατά την διάρκεια της καταβύθισης, παρουσία σίλικας οι συγκεντρώσεις μαγνησίου και φωσφορικών ελαττώνονταν ενώ στα πειράματα σταθερού υπερκορεσμού παρέμεναν σχεδόν σταθερές με αποτέλεσμα την συνεχή ανάκτηση φωσφόρου πάνω στο υπόστρωμα. Από την ανάλυση των φασμάτων για τα στερεά που σχηματίσθηκαν σε συνθήκες σταθερού υπερκορεσμού διασπιστώθηκε ότι σχηματίσθηκε αποκλειστικά στρουβίτης. Και στις τρεις σειρές πειραμάτων προσδιορίσθηκε ο αριθμός των δομικών μονάδων που αποτελούν τον κρίσιμο πυρήνα στο στάδιο της πυρηνογένεσης. Χωρίς υπόστρωμα βρέθηκε 10.0 ενώ με υπόστρωμα βρέθηκε 7.0. Αυτό οφείλεται στο ότι η παρουσία υποστρώματος βοηθά στο σχηματισμό των κρίσιμων πυρήνων του κρυστάλλου. Επίσης βρέθηκε ότι η εξάρτηση του ρυθμού σχηματισμού στρουβίτη από την ποσότητα του υποστρώματος δεν συνηγορεί στην υπόθεση της δευτερογενούς πυρηνογενέσεως λόγω της μείωσης του ρυθμού αυξανομένης της ποσότητας του υποστρώματος. Το αποτέλεσμα αυτό σε συνδυασμό με την αύξηση των χρόνων επαγωγής αυξανομένης της ποσότητας του υποστρώματος, οδηγεί στην εύλογη υπόθεση περί επιβραδυντικής δράσης του υποστρώματος λόγω μόλυνσης η οποία πιθανόν να απελευθερώνεται στο διάλυμα. Σε χαμηλότερους βαθμούς υπερκορεσμού, θα πρέπει να σημειωθεί ότι δεν παρατηρήθηκε σημαντική επίδραση της ποσότητας του υποστρώματος στον χρόνο επαγωγής ο οποίος απαιτείται για τον σχηματισμό του υπερκρίσιμου πυρήνα στρουβίτη. Στις συνθήκες αυτές η ανάπτυξη του στρουβίτη γίνεται επιλεκτικά στο υπόστρωμα της σίλικα. Τώρα όσο αφορά τα πειράματα με τις κλίνες από ανοξείδωτο χάλυβα είχαμε μόνο τη δημιουργία στρουβίτη στην κλίνη που περιείχε άμμο. Στις κλίνες από πλαστικό τα πειράματα έδειξαν ότι ναι μεν γίνεται εναπόθεση πρισματικών κρυσταλλιτών στρουβίτη στους κόκκους όλων των υποστρωμάτων αλλά οι ποσότητες οι οποίες σχηματίσθηκαν ήσαν πολύ μικρές σε βαθμό ώστε να μη είναι δυνατή η ταυτοποίηση των σχηματιζόμενων κρυσταλλικών στερεών με φυσικοχημικές μεθόδους όπως η περιθλασιμετρία ακτίνων Χ. / It is known that waste water are dangerous also for population and environment. That is the reason why their treatment considers being necessary before their disposal to water bodies. In recent years, concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorous in waste water increased significantly. Large quantities of these nutrients present in waste water is one of the main causes of eutrophication. The solution to this problem could not only be the reduction of phosphorous concentration in wastewater but also it’s recycle. A new method for phosphorous removal as a recyclable product is the strouvite’s crystallization. Some of the advantages of strouvite’s recovery are: the simultaneous and effective reduction of phosphorous and nitrogen, the use of strouvite as a slow-release fertilizer, the saving of raw materials in the fertilizer industry and it’s application for stabilization of sand or corrosive soil. This review studies, the kinetics of the spontaneous precipitation of struvite in aqueous solution of synthetic waste water, the examination of heterogeneous formation of struvite in substrate of SiOB2B and some tests of incorporation of sand, silica and CaCOB3B in beds. Τhe kinetics of spontaneous precipitation of struvite in a water solution of synthetic waste water was also investigated in pH ~ 9.0 without substrate, with substrate and in constant super saturation with presence of substrate. The substrate that was used in all experiments was silica. In present essay the supersaturated solutions contained only stoichiometric concentrations of MgP 2+ P, POB4PB 3- P and NHB4PB + P ions, with corresponding to the sinked solid body. At 25P ο PC temperature and 0.05, 0.1, 0.2 g of substrate, white orthorhombic crystalline struvite were precipitated spontaneously. It was found that induction times preceding to the formation of the critical cells rise dramatically with the reduction of supersaturation of the solutions. In experiments that took place with the presence of silica, where pH≈9.0, during precipitation, the concentrations of MgP 2+ P, POB4PB 3- P ions reduced while in experiments of steady supersaturation concentrations were almost unchanged resulting to continuous recovery of phosphorous on the substrate. From spectra analysis of the formed solids in conditions of steady supersaturation was found that the only product was strouvite. In all three series of experiments was specified the number of the structural units consisting the critical cell in the stage of cell formation. In experiments without substrate was found 10.0 while in experiments with substrate was found 7.0. This can be easily explained, as it is known that the presence of substrate helps in the formation of critical cells of the crystals. As far as it concerns the experiments with bed from stainless steel, struvite was formed only in bed, which contained sand. In beds made of plastic, experiments showed that we have deposition of strouvite crystals in all substrate, but produced quantities were so small that the identification of solid crystals with physico chemical methods such us X-ray diffraction patterns (XRD), was not possible. It was found that the relationship between formation rate of struvite and the quantity of substrate, does not stand up for the hypothesis of secondary cell formation, because of the reduction of the rate, increasing the quantity of the substrate. Above result, in combination with rise of the induction time, and the quantity of the substrate, leads to the hypothesis for retardant act of the substrate, because of contamination. In smaller grade of supersaturation it was not observed significant influence of the quantity of the substrate, to the induction time. In that condition, the upgrowth of struvite is selectively to the silica substrate.

The effect of engineered nanoparticles (ENPs) mixture consisting of silver oxide, (Agg0[Silver Oxide Nanopartical], 20 nm), titanium dioxide, (TiO2[Titanium dioxide], 30-40 nm) and zinc oxide, (ZnO, 20 nm) compared with their bulk metal salts was evaluated against unspiked activated sludge (control) using 3 parallel pilot-scale treatment plants. The total concentration of the ionic species of Ag+ Ti[Silver + Titanium] and Zn(2+) in the effluent of the ENP spiked activated sludge (AS) was below limits of detection and> 99% of the spiked ENP were found in the waste activated sludge (WAS), whereas 39 – 58 % of Ag0[Silver Oxide Nanopartical], 51 – 63 % and 58 – 74 % of ZnO ion concentrations were recovered in the anaerobic digestate (AD) cake suggesting higher affinity of ENPs to WAS than to anaerobic digestate. ENPs induced a 2-fold increase of the microbial community specific oxygen uptake rate (SOUR) compared with the control and > 98 % of ammonia and 80 % of COD were removed from the AS suggesting that the heterotrophic biomass retained their ability to nitrify and degrade organic matter at the spiked ENP concentration. The floc size and cultivable microbial abundance was reduced in the ENP spiked AS with no apparent disruption of the overall AS process efficiency. However, scanning electron microscopic analysis clearly showed damage to specific microbial cells. The lipid fingerprint and 16S rRNA gene-based pyrosequencing evidenced the dominance of Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, and Bacteriodetes with a clear temporal shift in microbial community structure. The prominent nano-tolerant bacterial species identified were Acidovorax, Rhodoferax, and Comamonas whereas Methanocorpusculum and Methanosarcina were recovered in AS and were the dominant Archaea in the AD with 99 and 98 % similarities to the closest culturable relative. Their presence in the AS suggests tolerance to ENPs and oxygen-dependent respiration. V. fisheri activity was not sensitive to the ionic concentrations of the ENP or metal salt mixture in the digestate samples and illustrates the need to develop bioassay using indigenous wastewater microorganisms to detect the potential effect of ENP. Overall, unlike other xenobiotic compounds, ENPs can hasten the natural selection of microbial species in activated sludge and anaerobic digestion processes.

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