The biodegradability and when functionalised biocompatibility of aliphatic polycarbonates (APCs) makes them an attractive class of materials for biomedical applications such as tissue engineering scaffolds and drug-delivery carriers. One route to accessing a wide-range of well-defined and functional APCs is the controlled ring-opening polymerisation (ROP) of cyclic carbonates. In turn, these would ideally be prepared by the direct coupling of CO2 with diols to give water as the only by-product. In this way, the combination of CO2 and sugar-derived diols draws upon two natural renewable building blocks for the construction of polycarbonates that are anticipated to show good biocompatibility properties. Chapter 2 develops a simple and mild alternative to the traditional use of phosgene derivatives for the synthesis of six-membered cyclic carbonates from 1,3-diols and CO2. DFT calculations highlighted the need to lower both the CO2-insertion and ring-closing kinetic barriers to cyclic carbonate formation. Organic superbase, 1,8- diazabicyclo[5.4.0]undec-7-ene (DBU) enabled the formation of carbonate species at 1 atm CO2 pressure whereas, the introduction of a leaving group strategy lowered the cyclisation barrier. Mechanistic considerations suggested a kinetic preference for ring- closing via a nucleophilic addition-elimination pathway rather than a SN2-like intramolecular cyclisation. Chapter 3 applies the procedure with CO2 to the preparation of a novel monomer from natural sugar, ᴅ-mannose. ROP was carried out via an organocatalytic approach and a preference for head-tail linkages in the polycarbonate backbone indicated by NMR spectroscopy and supported by DFT calculations. Chapter 4 utilises CO2 to invert the natural stereochemistry of sugars and create a thymidine-based monomer. The thermodynamic parameters of the ROP with 1,5,7-triazabicyclo[4.4.0]dec-5-ene (TBD) catalyst are determined and the properties of the polycarbonates investigated to include preliminary cell attachment studies. Finally, chapter 5 details the synthesis of cyclic carbonates from 2- deoxy-ᴅ-ribose and the investigation into the different ROP behaviour of the α- and β- anomers. The ability to tune the polymer properties through copolymerisation with trimethylene carbonate (TMC) is also discussed.

Les problématiques et potentialités de la photopolymérisation radicalaire en miniémulsion ont été discutées, en partant de l’étude des propriétés optiques des miniémulsions de monomère jusqu’à la synthèse de nouvelles nanoparticules polysulfures semi-cristallines par réaction thiol-ène. En premier lieu, l'interaction entre les propriétés optiques de miniémulsion de monomère et l'efficacité de photopolymérisation a été clarifiée. Nous avons établi le rôle majeur de la diffusion optique sur les cinétiques de photopolymérisation de nanogouttelettes acrylates, tandis que l'absorption s’est révélé de moindre importance. Que ce soit en milieu dilué ou concentré (modèle de Kubelka-Munk), la diffusion de la lumière est atténuée lorsque la taille de gouttelettes diminue. La conséquence immédiate est une amélioration significative de la pénétration de la lumière induisant une accélération des cinétiques de polymérisation. Néanmoins, cette conclusion doit être pondérée car l’effet de compartimentage de la polymérisation radicalaire n’a pu être dissocié des effets optiques. On notera qu’en milieu concentré (contenu en solide de 30 % massique), au-delà de 150 nm pour le diamètre de gouttelette, le coefficient de diffusion atteint un palier et devient indépendant de la taille des gouttelettes. La chute d’absorbance, observée par spectroscopie UV-visible, tout au long de l’irradiation pour des miniémulsions acrylates de faible taille (40 nm) a mis en évidence un mécanisme de polymérisation par diffusion de monomère des gouttelettes non nucléées vers les particules en croissance. Cette analyse non invasive (aucune dilution n’a été nécessaire) présente un intérêt évident pour l’étude du mécanisme de nucléation. Nous avons ensuite démontré que la photopolymérisation pouvait être réalisée en utilisant le caractère auto-amorçant des acrylates sous irradiation UV court ( < 300 nm). Ce type d’amorçage photochimique a permis d’éviter l’emploi de photoamorceur, limitant ainsi les risques liés à leur présence résiduelle dans le matériau final. Les photopolymérisations ont été réalisées dans un microréacteur modèle (cuve spectroscopique d’épaisseur 0,1 à 1 mm). La variation de plusieurs paramètres expérimentaux a permis d’identifier un ensemble de paramètres clés influençant les cinétiques de polymérisation tels que la taille des gouttelettes, corroborant ainsi les résultats de l’étude optique. Les longueurs d’onde d’irradiation et le chemin optique ont joué un rôle tout aussi déterminant ; le décalage vers des longueurs d’onde courtes et la diminution de l’épaisseur de l’échantillon accélèrent à la fois la création de radicaux amorceurs et le nombre d’entités nucléées. La versatilité du procédé a été démontrée en polymérisant rapidement (conversion totale en moins de 20 min) une large gamme de monomères acrylate, méthacrylate ou à base d’acétate de vinyle. En ce qui concerne le mécanisme d’auto-amorçage, nous avons prouvé que les espèces amorçantes provenaient vraisemblablement d’un biradical photoinduit, pouvant arracher ou transférer un hydrogène sur des molécules de monomère pour former des monoradicaux amorceurs. Par le biais de ce mécanisme original, la génération de radicaux est constante tout au long de la polymérisation ce qui pour effet d’impacter les caractéristiques des copolymères formés : l’indice de polymolécularité tend à augmenter et les masses molaires à diminuer par rapport à un processus photoamorcé conventionnel. Ces photopolymérisations ont été réalisées dans un photoréacteur annulaire à immersion et ont montré les mêmes évolutions en fonction de la taille de gouttelettes que lors d’expériences en cuve spectroscopique non agitées. A titre d’exemple, une conversion totale est atteinte en 1 h pour des tailles de gouttelettes de 60 nm et un contenu en solide de 30 %. L’auto-amorçage photoinduit a permis de générer rapidement une grande quantité de chaînes en croissance au sein des gouttelettes. [...] / Issues and potentials of miniemulsion radical photopolymerization were discussed, starting from monomer miniemulsions’ optical properties to the synthesis of new semi-crystalline polysulfide nanoparticles by thiol-ene reaction. First, the relationship between the optical properties of miniemulsion and the polymerization efficiency was clarified. We established the major role of optical scattering on the acrylate nanodroplets’ photopolymerization kinetic, while the absorption was found to play a minor role. Whether diluted or concentrated medium (Kubelka-Munk model), light scattering is attenuated when droplet size decreased. The corollary is a significant improvement of UV light penetration within the reactor vessel leading to an acceleration of the polymerization kinetics. However, this conclusion was mitigated by the fact that compartmentalization effect could not be easily dissociated from optical effects. Note that in concentrated medium (solids content of 30 wt %), beyond 150 nm droplet diameter, the scattering coefficient leveled off regardless of droplet size. An absorbance drop was observed using UV-visible spectroscopy throughout the irradiation of the smallest acrylate miniemulsions (40 nm). This result suggested a polymerization mechanism occurring by monomer diffusion from non-nucleated droplets to growing particles. This non-invasive analysis (no dilution was required) is of high interest to study the nucleation mechanism.In a second part, we demonstrated that acrylate miniemulsion photopolymerization could be performed through a monomer self-initiation mechanism induced by short-wavelength UV irradiation ( < 300 nm). Such original photochemical initiation avoided the use of photoinitiator, thus limiting the risks associated with their residual presence in the final material. The self-initiated photopolymerizations were carried out in a model microreactor (spectroscopic cell of 0.1 to 1 mm thick). The variation of several parameters allowed us to identify key parameters influencing polymerization kinetics such as droplet size, thus corroborating the results of the optical study. The irradiation wavelength and the optical path played a crucial role; the shift towards shorter wavelengths and the sample thickness reduction accelerated both the generation of initiating radicals and the number of nucleated entities. The versatility of the method was demonstrated by fast polymerization (complete conversion achieved within 20 minutes) employing a wide range of acrylate, methacrylate and vinyl acetate monomers. Regarding the self-initiating mechanism, one proved that the initiating species likely originated from a biradical able to abstract or transfer hydrogen from monomer molecules, thereby forming initiating monoradicals. Through this original mechanism, the generation of radicals was constant throughout the polymerization, which impacted the characteristics of the copolymer chains: the polydispersity index tended to increase and the molar masses decreases when compared with a conventional photoinduced process. These photopolymerizations were also carried out in an annular immersion photoreactor and showed the same trends regarding the effect of droplet size as the experiments conducted in unstirred spectroscopic tank. For example, a complete conversion was reached after 1 h for a 60 nm acrylate miniemulsion with a solids content of 30 wt %. As a result, a self-initiated polymerization can generate rapidly a large amount of insoluble growing polymer chains within the droplets. This unique feature was exploited to overcome Ostwald ripening without the addition of a specific costabilizer. Photochemical self-initiation could also be used to form surfactant-free nanolatex via Pickering-stabilized miniemulsion photopolymerization. Indeed, Laponite clay adsorbed at the surface of the droplets showed an excellent UV transparency up to 200 nm. [...]

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Alkali-soluble resins (ASRs) were prepared by (i) solution and (ii) emulsion polymerization. All ASRs were synthesized with number-average molar masses < 20,000 g mol-1 and all had 15 wt% methacrylic acid 5 wt% styrene, the remaining 80 wt% was composed of either methyl methacrylate or a combination of methyl methacrylate and ethyl acrylate. All emulsion ASRs were made to 20% solids, with volume-average particle diameters (dv) in the region 30 – 50 nm, with a glass transition temperature of 80 – 120 °C. Emulsion polymerization was the preferred route for ASR synthesis, to allow further studies on their dissolution behaviour. Before their use as colloidal stabilizers, the dissolution behaviour of the ASRs needed to beinvestigated e.g. effect of temperature, molar mass, and composition. Particle size and absorbance measurements were taken during dissolution of ASRs to achieve 100%neutralization and these were shown to have two stages, an apparent particle swelling (whichwas rapid), and a slower, decrease in particle size as water-soluble polymeric material wasdiffusing out of the ASR particles. From this, further interpretation allowed for calculating the diffusion coefficient of the ASR polymer using the Stokes-Einstein equation. Time-domain nuclear magnetic resonance (TD-NMR) was employed to enhance understanding of what is occurring in the ASR particles, and in the aqueous, continuous phase. The final aspect of this project was to use the ASRs prepared as colloidal stabilizers in emulsion polymerizations of butyl acrylate (BA) and butyl methacrylate (BMA) using varying levels and also the effect of adding additional surfactant. The results show that the effect of ASR molar mass, the concentration of stabilizer, and also the impact of the EA-containing ASR greatly influence stability, whereby lower ASR molar mass, higher levels of stabilizer and including EA greatly benefit colloidal stability in PBA latexes. In PBMA latexes, a similar trend was also observed, but, the presence of ethyl acrylate (EA) in the ASR backbone has a detrimental effect on the colloidal stability, caused by the inability of grafting to occur between the ASR and PBMA.

Ce travail décrit la synthèse et l’étude structurale d’oligomères mixtes et de leurs analogues cycliques alternant des résidus acides α aminés et des résidus acides azaaminés. Le premier chapitre concerne la synthèse en solution des 1:1-[α/aza]-oligomères et des 2:1 [α/aza] oligomères obtenus respectivement par oligomérisation par couplage peptidique de l’azadipeptide Boc-azaPhe-Ala-OMe et de l’azatripeptide Boc-Phe-azaPhe-Ala-OMe correctement déprotégés. Pour la première famille en série L, les rendements en dimérisation et en trimérisation sont moyens en raison de la faible nucléophilie du partenaire amine azadipeptidique. Quant aux 2:1 [α/aza]-oligomères de taille variable, ils ont été isolés avec de très bons rendements quelle que soit la nature L et/ou D des résidus acides α aminés de l’azatripeptide. Ce chapitre présente également l’étude conformationnelle de ces oligomères par spectroscopies RMN et IR, par modélisation moléculaire ainsi que dans certains cas par diffraction des RX. L’analyse des 1:1 [α/aza] oligomères a révélé une auto-structuration majoritaire en solution alternant un coude β et un coude γ stabilisés par des liaisons hydrogène intramoléculaires. L’examen des 2:1 [α/aza] oligomères a permis de mettre en évidence, en série homochirale (L), une conformation majoritaire caractérisée par la formation de coudes β stabilisés par un réseau de liaisons hydrogène intramoléculaires. Des repliements, induits par la formation de coudes β et de coudes γ s’imposent en série hétérochirale (DLDL…). Le second chapitre est consacré à la synthèse en solution et à l’étude conformationnelle des analogues cycliques des oligomères présentés dans le premier chapitre. Les 2:1 [α/aza] cyclooligomères sont surtout discutés, leur synthèse par couplage peptidique intramoléculaire étant plus efficace que celle des 1:1-[α/aza]-cyclooligomères. La formation de nanotubes due à l’empilement des 2 :1-[α/aza]-cyclohexamères homochiraux (L) a été mise en évidence à l’état solide par établissement de liaisons hydrogène intermoléculaires puis suggérée en solution. Le pouvoir gélifiant de certains solvants organiques de l’analogue hétérochiral (DLDL) présage également de son auto-structuration en nanotubes discutée uniquement en solution faute de structure à l’état solide / This work describes the synthesis and structural analysis of mixed oligomers and their cyclic analogues containing an alternation of α-acid residues and α-azaamino acids moieties. The first chapter deals with the “in solution” synthesis of 1:1-[α/aza]-oligomers and 2:1 [α/aza] oligomers respectively, obtained by oligomerization of the properly deprotected azadipeptide Boc-Ala-azaPhe-OMe azadipeptide and Boc-Phe-Ala-OMe-azaPhe tripeptide. For the first family series with L aminoacids, yields dimerization and trimerization are moderate due to the low nucleophilicity of the amine azadipeptidic partner. Concerning the 2:1-[α/aza]-oligomers of variable sizes, they were isolated with very good yields whatever the nature L and / or D of the α-aminoacid residues of the azatripeptide. This chapter also presents the conformational study of these oligomers by NMR and IR spectroscopy, molecular modeling and in some cases by X-ray diffraction. Analysis of the 1:1 [α/aza] oligomers reveals mainly an self-assembly in solution with alternation of β- and γ-turns stabilized by intramolecular hydrogen bonds. Examination of the 2:1 [α/aza] oligomers in homochiral series (L) evidenced a main conformation with repetitive β turns. Regarding the heterochiral series (DLDL….), it is an alternation of β- and γ-turns which is observed. The second chapter is devoted to the solution synthesis in solution and conformational study of cyclic analogues oligomers presented in the first chapter. 2: 1-[α/aza]-cyclooligomers are mostly discussed because their synthesis by intramolecular peptide coupling is more effective than the 1:1 [α/aza]-cyclooligomers. The formation of nanotubes due to the stacking of the homochiral (L) 2:1-[α/aza]-cyclohexamers has been shown in the solid state and suggested in solution. Furthermore, in heterochiral series, the gelling properties of some organic solvents suggest a self-assembly in solution

Stimuli-responsive polymers and self-assembling peptides represent two classes of materials with interesting properties and great potential to be used as biomaterials. The conjugation of polymer with peptide offers a way to combine the controlled chemical, mechanical, and thermal properties of polymer with the functionality of designed bioactive group. Pure hybrid materials with the characteristics of individual components or systems containing hybrid materials became attractive for applications in drug delivery and tissue engineering. This work focused on systems where the thermo-responsive properties of a polymer were combined with the gelling properties of two different ionic-complementary peptides via conjugation. The prototypical thermo-responsive polymer poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAAm) was chosen due to its lower critical solution temperature (LCST) ~32°C being close to body temperature. Ionic-complementary oligo-peptides, containing the alternating hydrophobic/hydrophilic and charged/uncharged amino acids, phenylalanine (F), glutamic acid (E) and lysine (K), were selected as they are known to form β-sheet rich fibrillar networks at low concentrations. Two peptide sequences with different charge distribution were chosen: FEFEFKFK and FEFKFEFK which form self-supporting gels at ~17 and 10 mg ml-1 respectively. Polymer-peptide conjugates were used to confer self-assembling and thermo-responsive behaviour to the system.Thermo-responsive PNIPAAm-rich hydrogels were obtained by targeting different degrees of functionalisation of PNIPAAm with the self-assembling peptides. Two series of such systems were prepared by using either a thiol-modified FEFEFKFK or a thiol-modified FEFKFEFK peptide as the chain-transfer agent in the free radical polymerisation of NIPAAm. The resulting polymer/conjugate mixtures were studied by proton nuclear magnetic resonance (1H NMR). The polymer/conjugate ratios were calculated and showed that the conjugate fraction in the mixtures increased with increasing concentration of peptide used for the polymerisation. Static light scattering (SLS) and viscometry showed the aggregation of the polymer/conjugate mixtures presumably due to the presence of peptide. The values from gel permeation chromatography (GPC), which were mostly attributed to the unconjugated polymers, were higher than those obtained from 1H NMR and centrifugation for the conjugates. The polymer/conjugate mixtures formed self-supporting gels where the critical gelation concentration decreased with increasing conjugate content. Oscillatory rheology experiments confirmed gels had formed and revealed that their elastic modulus, G' varied from ~ 10 to 400 Pa depending on the sample. TEM and AFM studies proved the formation of β-sheet fibres of ~ 4.5 ± 1.5 nm in diameter. The PNIPAAm-rich hydrogels were also characterised by micro DSC to reveal their thermo-responsiveness and phase separation and showed the LCST at ~ 30°C. The results of the study showed that varying the peptide sequence did not have an effect on thermal, mechanical or morphological properties of the hydrogels. By exploiting the self-assembly of the ionic-complementary peptides, it was possible to create PNIPAAm-rich, thermo-responsive hydrogels with controllable properties.Further in the study pure PNIPAAm-FEFEFKFK conjugate was incorporated into the FEFEFKFK peptide matrix to create peptide-rich thermo-responsive composite gels. Two series of the composite gels were prepared by varying separately the peptide matrix and polymer-peptide conjugate concentration. Micro DSC measurements revealed an endothermic peak at ~ 30ºC characteristic of the LCST of PNIPAAm. Oscillatory rheology studies showed that the composite gels became stronger with increasing conjugate concentration (G' ~ 20 - 200 Pa). Network morphology was studied by SANS. Using contrast variation and contrast matching techniques it was possible to distinguish between the peptide fibres and the PNIPAAm chains. Below and above the LCST the scattering curves showed a q-1 behaviour which is typical of rod-like objects. TEM and AFM also proved the formation of fibres of ~4.0 ± 0.8 nm and ~4.5 ± 1 nm respectively. AFM studies showed that the fibres of the composite gels were decorated with polymer chains. The thermo-responsiveness and the gelation properties of these conjugate-based scaffolds have potential for use as drug delivery vehicles or tissue engineering scaffolds.