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Nanocomposites have been widely reported to enhance performance in polymers, in both mechanical and physical properties. An increasing amount of research has resulted in many nanocomposite polymers being applied to various consumer products from motorcars to golf balls. Yet, at this time, there are no structural applications despite a large number of reports claiming improved mechanical properties. Carbon nanotubes are renowned for their specific mechanical properties as well as their thermal and electrical properties. Researchers have put a considerable amount of effort in adopting these nano-materials to structurally enhance an epoxy composite matrix. Though considered very promising many issues such as the dispersion and the bonding interface have been identified and there remains still no guaranteed structural improvement. The potential of epoxy/clay nanocomposite processing and application has been explored incorporating a study of composite processing methods and characterisation techniques. The key goals were to reliably achieve full dispersion and exfoliation of nanoclay without inducing air into the composite system. Two mechanical processes were used for comparison; a high shear rotary mixing and a laboratory bead mill. Microscopic observations of the resin before curing shows agglomerated nanoclay visible in the samples which decreases as the shearing time. Comparing the processing methods showed greater dispersion in the bead mill processed samples. TEM and X-ray diffraction were used to measure the exfoliation of the nanoclay. The analysis showed that the nanoclays had become intercalated, with the clay layer separation increasing from 2- 4 nm. Further testing looked at the mechanical and thermal properties of the nanoclay composites, comparing the nanoclay processing in amine hardener or solvent. The effect of changing the amount of nanoclay present in the epoxy was also recorded. Testing showed that a solvent processing II method gave best results, with a nanoclay loading of 2wt% processed with a solvent in a bead mill. The performance of CNTs in epoxy composites was also assessed looking at different bonding mechanisms (covalent and Vander Waals) of the carbon nanotube to the resin. The rheological, mechanical and fracture toughness properties were tested in epoxy resin with different nanotube loadings. These properties were explored in a brittle and a flexible resin, achieved by using two amine curing agents. The covalently bonded tubes showed Newtonian rheological properties and the greatest enhancement in tensile compressive and flexural strength and modulus as well as K1c fracture toughness. MWNT resins incorporating non-covalent bonds displayed shear thinning rheological behaviour and showed greatest improvement in Charpy impact toughness. Fibre reinforced composites laminates have also been investigated by enhancing a formulated pre-preg material. Compressive properties and interlaminar shear stress were tested in a woven carbon fibre composite and some increased properties have been seen which shows potential for further research.

Nanocomposite materials are currently attracting much interest due to their possibility of global property improvement – mechanical strength, toughness, electrical breakdown strength, electrical erosion resistance and flame retardancy. In order to disperse montmorillonite clay (MMT) into polyethylene (PE), the clay sheets need to be rendered organophilic. Masterbatches with a high level (~40 %wt) of organomodified clay can then be dispersed into a host by a simple mechanical process. Two chemically different masterbatches were purchased: Nanoblend 2101 from PolyOne Corp. and C30PE from Nanocor Inc. These were let down using a RandcastleTM single screw extruder with a patented mixing device to provide elongational flow. Wide angle X-ray diffraction was used together with transmission electron microscopy to evaluate the particle dispersion, which consisted of intercalated clay organised in clusters up to one micron in diameter. The performance of these materials was assessed in terms of AC ramp breakdown statistics, dielectric spectroscopy, dynamic and tensile mechanical properties. Nanoblend masterbatch consistently improved the breakdown statistics, more than overcoming the inherent demerit of extrusion, which mildly aged the unfilled material (as confirmed by Raman spectroscopy.) On the other hand, even low loading levels of Nanocor could result in reduced breakdown strength and increased scatter. Furthermore, both sets of materials demonstrated large dielectric losses at power frequencies and poorer performance under mechanical tension. These materials would therefore require considerable development before they could confidently be used commercially. The nature of the PE-MMT interactions was examined by investigating the crystallisation kinetics and resulting morphologies with differential scanning calorimetry and scanning electron microscopy. By varying the masterbatch type, loading level and crystallisation temperature, it was possible to study a wide range of supercrystalline morphologies using a permanganic etching technique. This is a useful contribution to the field of nanocomposites research. It is known that the morphologies of polymers can affect their mechanical properties and electrical treeing behaviour, and so it is possible that controlled crystallisation could provide a route toward designer materials with optimised behaviour.

Synthesis of optically active dendrimers based on 1,1'-bi-2-naphthol enantiomers and their derivatives as core units is growing rapidly due to the unique behavior and properties of the new compounds and their various valuable applications in several fields such as asymmetric catalysts, enantioselective fluorescent sensors and in chiral molecular recognition. To the best of our knowledge, the synthesis of binaphthyl-based symmetrical and asymmetrical axially chiral dendrimers via 1,3-cycloaddition reactions ["Click" chemistry] using Fréchet-type dendrons and their azido-analogues has not been studied yet. The principal aim of this project was the synthesis and characterization of a novel series of binaphthyl-based symmetrical and asymmetrical axially chiral dendrimers via "Click" and etherification reactions, and then determination of the specific and molar rotation of the new dendrimers to investigate the influence of linkage nature between the dendritic wedges and the core units on the optical properties in presence of the triazole ring by comparing of the properties of the new dendrimers with the dendrimers reported in literature, in addition to study the influences of different chemical groups near the dendritic wedges on the optical properties of the novel synthesized dendrimers. In conclusion, several families of novel BINOL-based symmetrical and asymmetrical axially chiral dendrimers have been synthesized by the reaction of well-known BINOL derivatives as core units with Fréchet-type dendrons and their azido-analogues via "Click" and etherfication reactions for the first time. All new dendrimers were obtained in very good yields which confirm the effectiveness of "Click" reaction in this type of synthesis. The new dendrimers were fully characterized by 1H, 13C and HMQC NMR spectroscopy, mass spectrometry, IR spectroscopy and UV-Vis spectrometry. All new dendrimers show moderate optical activity. Changes in the specific and molar rotation are characterized by a general decrease in the specific rotation and a general increase in the molar rotation with the increase in the dendritic wedges generation in each series of the synthesized dendrimers. By our current knowledge, the increase in the specific rotation as generation increases of (S)-358, (S)-359 and (S)-360 observed in this research is the first such observation. The presence of the triazole ring in the linkage between the core unit and the dendritic wedges plays an important role in reducing of the steric repulsion between the two naphthyl units and in reducing of the effect of the dendritic wedges generation on the torsional angle by making the wedges far away from the attachment point of the two naphthyl units.

A Multivalent entity, which could represent a protein, nanoparticle, polymer, virus or a lipid bilayer, has the ability to form multiple bonds to a substrate. Hence, a multivalent interaction can be strong, even if the individual bonds are weak. However, much more interestingly, multivalency enables the design of highly specific interactions using non-specific individual bonds. We attempt to rationalise multivalent effects using simple physical models complemented with numerical simulations. Based on physiochemical characteristics of multivalent binders, we aim to predict the overall strength of interaction and its sensitivity to variation in parameters. We start with a simple model of homo-multivalency, where all bonds are equivalent. Such systems can exhibit a super-selective response, which denotes the high sensitivity of the strength of multivalent binding to the number of accessible binding sites on the target surface. We present a theoretical analysis of systems of multivalent particles and show that a certain degree of disorder is necessary for super-selective behaviour. Moreover, we formulate a set of simple design rules for multivalent interactions that yield optimal selectivity. In the second stage, we expand the model to hetero-multivalency, accounting for multiple distinct types of binding partners. We consider targeting of cells based on a density profile of different membrane receptors types and demonstrate, that speci city towards a desired receptor density profile can be obtained. Hence, cells can be reliably targeted in the absence of specific markers. Crucially, we show that for optimal selectivity, individual bonds must be weak. Finally, we add information about specific geometry and positions of binding sites on the multivalent entity. We focus on molecular imprinting; the process whereby a polymer matrix is cross-linked in the presence of template molecules. The cross-linking process endows the polymer matrix with a chemical ‘memory’, such that the target molecules can subsequently be recognised by the matrix. We show how the binding multivalency and the polymer material properties affect the efficiency and selectivity of molecular imprinting.

Polymers and polymer-based composite materials with electro-conductive properties, respectively, are materials with several potential applications. New materials are being offered in every area and novel products are constantly being introduced. Among these new materials, composites made of electro-conductive monofilaments and insulating polymers are nowadays being used as antistatic materials in the carpets and textiles industries. One promising approach for the manufacture of this kind of material is to generate the electrically conductive fibres in-situ, that is, during the actual forming process of the component. The main objective of this project was to establish the feasibility of producing electrically conductive polyaniline (PANI) fibres within a suitable polymer matrix by means of the development of a suitable processing strategy, which allows the fabrication of an anisotropically conducting composite. It is remarkable, however, that layered structures of the conducting filler were also formed within the matrix material. The latter morphology, particularly observed in compression moulded specimens of a specific polymer system, was also in good agreement with that inferred by means of a mathematical model. Experimentation was carried out with three different PANI conductive complexes (PANIPOLTM). They were initially characterised, which assisted in the identification of the most suitable material to be deformed into fibres. Preliminary processing was carried out with the selected PANIPOLTM complex, which was blended with polystyrene-polybutadiene-polystyrene (SBS), low density polyethylene (LDPE) and polypropylene (PP), respectively. The resultant blends were formed by ram extrusion, using a capillary die, to induce the deformation of the conducting phase into fibres. The morphological analysis performed on the extrudates suggested that the most suitable polymer matrix was SBS. Further experimentation was carried out with the polymer system selected. The relationships between the content of conductive complex in the composites and their electrical conductivity and microstructure were established. The blends were compression moulded and they displayed a morphology of layered domains of the conducting phase within the SBS matrix. The behaviour of the conductivity with respect to the PANIPOLTM complex in the compression moulded blends was found to be characteristic of a percolating system with a threshold as low as 5 weight percent of the conducting filler in the blends. The morphological analysis performed on the extruded blends suggested that the conducting phase was deformed into elongated domains, aligned parallel to the extrusion direction, which in some cases displayed a considerable degree of continuity and uniformity. The level of electrical conductivity in the extrudates was considerably lower than that of their corresponding non-extruded blends. This was attributed to a lack of continuity in the conducting elongated domains produced in-situ within the SBS matrix. Percolation theory and a generalisation of effective media theories were used to model the behaviour of the conductivity with respect to the content of PANIPOLTM in the compression moulded blends. Both approaches yielded similar values for the critical parameters, which were also in good agreement with the percolation threshold experimentally observed. The results of the modelling suggested that, at the percolation threshold, the morphology of the composite may consists of aggregates of flattened polyaniline particles forming very long layered structures within the SBS matrix, which is in agreement with the results of the morphological analysis.

Cette étude a focalisé sur le retard de flamme du polybutylène succinate (PBS) qui est un polymère bio-sourcé et biodégradable et qui a des bonnes propriétés mécanique par multiple méthodes. Dans ce contexte, modification d’isosorbide a été réalisé pour obtenir des retardateurs de flamme bio-sourcé. Puis, isosorbide et poly(isosorbide)carbonate (PIC) a été extrudé avec PBS et des retardateur de flamme intumescent. Cela a montré l’augmentation des propriétés retard de flamme dans la phase condensé qui a une augmentation de taux de char et diminution de pHHR et THR. Un retardateur de flamme conventionnel, DOPO, a présenté des super propriétés de retard de flamme pour PBS dans la phase gazeuse. Il a montré une grande augmentation de temps d’ignition de 119 s à 410 s dans MLC test quand il est incorporé 10 wt% dans du PBS. Une UL-94 instrumentation original a été désigné pour l’investigation de ses mode d’action pendant un scénario de feu. Ces études ont fourni des informations pour les futurs travaux sur le retard de flamme des polymères bio-sourcés. / This study was dedicated to the development of flame retarded polybutylene succinate (PBS), a bio-based polymer, which possess good mechanical properties and biodegradability, by various different approaches. In this context, modifications of isosorbide were achieved to obtain bio-based flame retardants. Then isosorbide and poly(isosorbide) carbonate (PIC) were blended with PBS and APP to form intumescent flame retardant system acting as carbonization agent. It shows the improvement of the flame retardant properties in the condensed phase where the yield of residual char was increased and the pHRR and THR were decreased. A conventional flame retardant, DOPO, showed some super flame retardant property for PBS in the gaseous phase. It had an improvement of the ignition time from 119 s to 410 s in MLC test when 10 wt% of DOPO was incorporated in PBS. An original UL-94 instrumentation was designed to investigate its mode of action during a fire scenario. These studies have provided the information for the future works on flame retardancy of bio-based polymers.

O σκοπός της εργασίας αυτής ήταν η σύνθεση νέων αστεροειδών τριπολυμερών, τύπου An(B-C)n διαφόρων μοριακών δομών, με την τεχνική του «ζωντανού» ανιονικού πολυμερισμού. Αναπτύχθηκε μια μεθοδολογία τεσσάρων διαδοχικών σταδίων σε αντίδραση διαλείποντος έργου η οποία δίνει προϊόντα καθορισμένης μοριακής αρχιτεκτονικής. Η μέθοδος αυτή είναι επέκταση της μεθόδου in-out που χρησιμοποιήθηκε για την σύνθεση ετεροκλαδικών συμπολυμερών αστεροειδών τύπου ΑnBn. Τα νέα αστεροειδή τριπολυμερή Αn(B-C)n αποτελούνται από ένα πυρήνα διασταυρομένων μονομερών από τον οποίο εξέρχονται δύο ειδών κλάδοι θεωρητικά ίσου αριθμού, ήτοι κλάδοι ομοπολυμερούς Α και κλάδοι δι-συσταδικού συμπολυμερούς (B-C). Για το σκοπό αυτό χρησιμοποιήθηκε μια ποικιλία μονομερών και παραγόντων συνένωσης προκειμένου να επιτύχουμε το επιθυμητό αποτέλεσμα. Χρησιμοποιήθηκαν διφορετικοί πυρήνες των αστεροειδών τόσο στη φύση (διβίνυλοβενζόλιο, διμεθακρυλικός αιθυλενο-γλυκολεστέρας) όσο και στις διαστάσεις (μίγμα διβίνυλοβενζολίου/στυρενίου) προκειμένου να μελετηθεί η επίδραση που φέρουν. Η μεθοδολογία που χρησιμοποιήθηκε δίνει τη δυνατότητα του σταδιακού χαρακτηρισμού των προϊόντων ο οποίος ήταν ουσιώδης για τον τελικό χαρακτηρισμό των τριπολυμερών. Για το μοριακό χαρακτηρισμό πρόδρομων και τελικών πολυμερών χρησιμοποιήθηκαν οι τεχνικές της χρωματογραφίας αποκλεισμού μεγεθών, της στατικής σκέδασης φωτός και η φασματοσκοπία του πυρηνικού μαγνητικού συντονισμού (1H-NMR). Επιπλέον για λόγους σύγκρισης ιδιοτήτων μεταξύ γραμμικών και αστεροειδών, συντέθηκαν γραμμικά ABC τριπολυμερή χρησιμοποιώντας την μέθοδο της διαδοχικής προσθήκης. Τα τελικά πολυμερή καθαρίστηκαν από τυχόν προσμίξεις με την τεχνική της soxhlet και χρησιμοποιώντας ως διαλύτη κυκλοεξάνιο. Μελετήθηκαν οι μηχανικές ιδιότητες των ετεροκλαδικών αστεροειδών συμπολυμερών σε σύγκριση με τα αντίστοιχα γραμμικά τριπολυμερή, με σκοπό να διερευνηθεί η επίδραση της αρχιτεκτονικής στις ιδιότητες αυτές. Επιπλέον εξετάσθηκε και ο μικροφασικός διαχωρισμός τόσο των γραμμικών όσο και των αστεροειδών τριπολυμερών και ο ρόλος που παίζουν η αρχιτεκτονική και τα μοριακά χαρακτηριστικά των πολυμερών. Η πραγματοποίηση πειραμάτων δυναμικής μηχανικής ανάλυσης καθώς και διαφορικής θερμιδομετρίας σάρωσης σε αστεροειδή πολυμερή πολύστυρενίου, πολύ(μεθακρυλικού εξυλεστέρα) και πολύ(μεθακρυλικού μεθυλεστέρα) και στα αντίστοιχα γραμμικά τους πολυμερή οδήγησαν σε ενδιαφέρον συμπεράσματα. Έγινε σαφές πως η δομή και το μοριακό βάρος επηρεάζουν τις ιδιότητες των πολυμερών. / The subject of this research was the synthesis of star-shaped terpolymers An(B-C)n, using the anionic living polymerization. A 4-step methodology in patch reaction was developed which gives polymers of specific molecular structure. This method is expansion of the in-out method which is used to synthesize heteroarm-star copolymers AnBn. The new star terpolymers consist of a core from cross-linked monomers from which derive two kind of branches theoretically equal in number. One is branches of homopolymer A and the other is branches of diblock copolymer (B-C). For this aim a variety of monomers and cross-linking agents was used. Different cores were made on the nature (DVB,EGDMA) and the size (DVB/St) in order to investigate their effect. Through the synthetic methodology we were able to molecular characterize each step which was vital for the final polymer. The polymers were well characterized through specific techniques. In order to measure the molar mass (Mw and Mn) and the polydispersity, I (Mw/Mn), we used Size Exclusion Chromatography (SEC) technique. The number of the branches was calculated by the Static Light Scattering (SLS) technique. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance spectroscopy (1 H-NMR) was used to calculate the percentage of each homopolymer to the terpolymer. Moreover in order to compare the properties of star and linear terpolymers, ABC linear terpolymers were synthesized by sequential addition. The final polymers were purified through the soxhlet technique with cycloexane. The properties of heteroarm star-like terpolymers were studied comparing with that of the corresponding linear terpolymers (the block and arm lengths were equal) in order to understand the effect of the macromolecular architecture on these properties. Moreover the microphase separation was examined in order to study the effect of the architecture and the molecular characteristics on the terpolymers. The Dynamic Mechanical Analysis (DMA) and Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) experiments on linear and star terpolymers with polystyrene (PS), poly(hexylmethacrylate) (PHMA) and poly(methylmethacrylate) (PMMA) result in interesting conclusions. These conclusions gave us a clear proof that the molecular characteristics and the architecture of the polymers infect their properties.

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