This thesis seeks to argue for the problematising role of tradition and generational influence in the work of three Northern Irish poets publishing since the late 1990s. The subjects, Colette Bryce (b. 1970), Leontia Flynn (b. 1974) and Sinéad Morrissey (b. 1972), emerged coterminously, each publishing with major UK publishers. Together they represent a generation of assured female poetic voices. This study presents one of the first critical considerations of the work of these poets, and it remains conscious of the dominance of conceptions of tradition and lineage which are notable in poetry from Northern Ireland from the twentieth-century onwards. In suggesting that this tradition is problematised for emerging women poets by precursor-peer dominance and the primacy of male perspectives in the tradition, this thesis combines a study of poetics, themes relating to gender, detachment and paratexts. From consideration of these elements, it proposes that contemporary poets are not necessarily subject to the powers of tradition and influence, but rather, are capable of a selective approach that in turn demonstrates the malleability of contemporary traditions. The approaches are laid out in four chapters which move from a consideration of “threshold” paratexts (following from the work of Gérard Genette), including book reviews and dedications, through studies of thematic divergence and detachment, the changing status of women’s poetry traditions within Northern Ireland and beyond, the significance of gendered subjects in poetry, and influence found not in thematic or paratextual aspects, but in the individual aspects of poetic form. These aspects combine to form poems and the tradition(s) in which they continue. The thesis provides extensive coverage of the work of Bryce, Flynn, and Morrissey, combining close readings with the application of theoretical frameworks interrogating the implications of literary traditions on later writers (especially when the writers are temporally and culturally close), giving particular consideration to gender and feminist politics. It explores a variety of different critical truisms applied to the poetic generations that precede the younger poets and identifies both compliance and divergences from the contemporary Northern Irish canon. In doing so, this study simultaneously illuminates the frailties of the popular, overwhelmingly male, tradition, particularly as regards to representations of women, and provides direction for studies of post-millennial Northern Irish poetry.

This thesis examines the history of collaborations between poets and photographers in the Anglophone world, from 1845 to 2015, and argues for a new form of art distinct from the photobook. It identifies a new body of work, ‘photopoetry', and develops this discovery into a critical exegesis of its forms and potentials. Proceeding chronologically, this thesis explores photopoetic history from its nineteenth-century roots to modern-day collaborations between renowned poets and photographers. Chapter I examines early experiments in photopoetic form, including scrapbooks and stereographs, and identifies two thematic trends characterising photopoetic history to the present day: the picturesque and the theatrical. The second chapter focuses on the identity politics of photopoetic books in the late-nineteenth and early-twentieth centuries, exploring how the relationship between poem and photograph can both perpetuate and subvert representations of the objectified other, from British India to the American South. Chapter III theorises Imagism from a photographic perspective, examining how, in the absence of any discernibly modernist photopoetry book, the most important dialogue between poem and photograph was enacted within Imagist verse. It proceeds to examine the introduction of urban environments into early-to-mid-twentieth-century photopoetry. Chapter IV analyses the reinterpretation of photopoetic topography in mid-to-late-twentieth-century collaborations, exploring how picturesque landscapes in nineteenth-century photopoetry were reinvented as immersive environments that echoed the rise of photopoetic co-authorship and the development of more symbiotic, less literal photopoetic relationships. The fifth chapter expands upon ideas analysed in Chapter IV, arguing how, in narrowing both poetic and photographic focus to objects rather than picturesque vistas, twenty-first-century photopoetry encourages a non-linear approach to reading and viewing, abandoning the ‘journey' paradigm of earlier photopoetry. Overall, this thesis represents the first book-length history of photopoetry, and expounds both a new area of analysis for scholars of text and image, and a new critical discourse for such analyses.

Στόχος αυτής της διπλωματικής εργασίας είναι η διερεύνηση του τρόπου με τον οποίον ο Βορειοϊρλανδός ποιητής Seamus Heaney, έχοντας επηρεαστεί από τις Ταραχές και την αγριότητα του Ιρλανδικού εμφυλίου πολέμου, αντιλαμβάνεται το σύγχρονο πόλεμο στην Βόρειο Ιρλανδία μέσα από την ποιητική σύνδεσή του με τον αρχαίο μύθο και την αρχαία Ελληνική τραγωδία. Αντικείμενα μελέτης αυτής της εργασίας αποτελούν το θεατρικό έργο The Cure at Troy (1990), που είναι διασκευή του Φιλοκτήτη του Σοφοκλή, και μια σειρά πέντε ποιημάτων, βασισμένων στην Ορέστεια του Αισχύλου, με τίτλο Η Βίγλα των Μυκηνών (Mycenae Lookout) από τη συλλογή Το Αλφάδι (The Spirit Level 1996). Στο πρώτο κεφάλαιο θα γίνει μία σύντομη ιστορική αναδρομή αναφορικά με τις πολιτικές και κοινωνικές συνθήκες που επικράτησαν για αιώνες και εξέθρεψαν το Ιρλανδικό πρόβλημα. Θα απαντηθεί γιατί στην Ιρλανδία καλλιεργήθηκε η μετάφραση και η διασκευή κλασικών έργων σε τέτοια έκταση, και θα καταδειχθεί ότι μέσα σε αυτό το περιβάλλον καταπίεσης και κοινωνικών διακρίσεων η κλασική παιδεία, με μακραίωνη παράδοση στην Ιρλανδία, συνδυάστηκε με την αμφισβήτηση της Βρετανικής κυριαρχίας επί της νήσου. Ακολούθως θα συζητηθεί για ποιο λόγο, κατά την τελευταία τριακονταετία ειδικότερα, αρκετοί σύγχρονοι Ιρλανδοί ποιητές και θεατρικοί συγγραφείς, σε μία προσπάθεια να ερμηνεύσουν τα διάφορα κοινωνικά, πολιτικά και θρησκευτικά προβλήματα που απασχολούν τόσο την κοινωνία της Δημοκρατίας της Ιρλανδίας όσο και αυτήν της Βόρειας Ιρλανδίας (Ulster), στράφηκαν προς την αρχαία Ελληνική τραγωδία, κάνοντας διασκευές και προσαρμόζοντας τα αρχαία κείμενα στις σύγχρονες συνθήκες. Σε αυτή την κατεύθυνση σημαντικό ρόλο έπαιξε ο θεατρικός οργανισμός Field Day, του οποίου η θεματολογία προσανατολίστηκε σε μεταφράσεις και διασκευές αρχαίων ελληνικών τραγωδιών. Στο δεύτερο και το τρίτο κεφάλαιο θα αναλυθούν το θεατρικό έργο The Cure at Troy και τα πέντε ποιήματα της σειράς Η Βίγλα των Μυκηνών, αντίστοιχα, και θα διερευνηθούν οι τρόποι με τους οποίους ο ποιητής διαφοροποιείται από τα αρχαία πρωτότυπα έργα. Στη συνέχεια θα εξεταστεί ο τρόπος με τον οποίον ο Heaney χρησιμοποιεί τα αρχαία έργα για να πραγματευτεί θέματα όπως η σημασία της ‘πληγής’ της Ιρλανδίας και της ‘θεραπείας’, η σύγκρουση μεταξύ προσωπικής ακεραιότητας και πολιτικής σκοπιμότητας, η κοινωνική ευθύνη του ατόμου, η απώλεια της λογικής και της ανθρωπιάς μπροστά στη βιαιότητα του πολέμου. Μέσω του μύθου, ο ποιητής καταγγέλλει την αποικιοκρατία, την εκδικητικότητα, το μίσος, την πολιτική βία, τον πόλεμο και τις συνέπειές τους στη ζωή των συμπατριωτών του. Επίσης θα γίνει εκτενής αναφορά στην έντονη συζήτηση που προκάλεσε το θεατρικό έργο The Cure at Troy σχετικά με το κατά πόσο υπάρχει αντιστοιχία μεταξύ των αρχαίων και των σύγχρονων πολιτικών καταστάσεων και με το αν οι χαρακτήρες στο έργο του Heaney αντιπροσωπεύουν σύγχρονα ιστορικά πρόσωπα που έλαβαν μέρος στον Ιρλανδικό εμφύλιο πόλεμο. Μέσα από την εις βάθος ανάλυση του θεατρικού έργου και των πέντε ποιημάτων η εργασία θα καταλήξει στο συμπέρασμα ότι ο Heaney χρησιμοποιεί τους τραγικούς χαρακτήρες για να προβάλλει ένα όραμα για το μέλλον και για να εκφράσει την ελπίδα του για εθνική συμφιλίωση και τον πόθο για ειρήνευση και επιστροφή σε μία φυσιολογική ζωή. Τέλος, θα αναδυθεί ο βασανιστικός προβληματισμός που απασχολεί τον Heaney διαχρονικά, αναφορικά με τον ρόλο του ποιητή μέσα σε μια κοινωνία που ταλανίζεται από την κρίση και με το κατά πόσο η ποίηση έχει τη δύναμη να επηρεάζει την κοινωνία χωρίς να παράγει πολιτική προπαγάνδα. / The present thesis studies how Seamus Heaney, having been highly influenced by the ferocity of the ‘Troubles’, perceives the civil war in Northern Ireland through its poetic connection with ancient Greek myth and drama. Study subjects of this thesis are Heaney’s play The Cure at Troy (1990), which is an adaptation of Sophocles’ Philoctetes, and a sequence of five poems by Heaney titled ‘Mycenae Lookout’ (The Spirit Level 1996) which is based on Aeschylus’ trilogy the Oresteia. The first chapter comprises of a short historic retrospection on the political and social conditions that prevailed for centuries and generated the Irish problem. It attempts to answer why the translation and adaptation of classic plays was used so extensively, and it suggests that in an oppressive environment of social and religious discrimination, classical education, of a long tradition in the island, was associated with the questioning of the British rule over Ireland. It will be shown that over the last thirty years in particular, many contemporary Irish poets and playwrights, in an effort to interpret various socio-political problems that concern the Republic of Ireland as well as Northern Ireland (Ulster), have been inspired by ancient Greek drama. Towards this direction, the Field Day Theatre Company has played a crucial role on the reworking of ancient Greek tragedies. An analysis of Heaney’s play The Cure at Troy and of the five poems of Mycenae Lookout will be presented in the second and third chapter, respectively. In both chapters, there will be a discussion on the ways his work is differentiated from the ancient original plays, and on how he treats subjects such as the significance of the ‘wound’ of Ireland and of the ‘cure’, the conflict between personal integrity and political expediency, the responsibility of the individual towards the community, the loss of reason and humanity in times of war. Through the ancient myths the poet denounces colonialism, vindictiveness, bigotry, faction, political violence and their consequences in the life of Irishmen. There will also be an extensive account on the issue of political allegory raised in the play The Cure at Troy, and on whether there is an equivalence between the ancient and the contemporary political situation. The thesis epilogue will come to the conclusion that Heaney uses the tragic characters to project a vision for the future of Northern Ireland, and to express his hope and desire for national reconciliation and peace. Finally, there will emerge the tantalizing problem that has been occupying Heaney’s mind over the years regarding the role of the poet in a community that has been harassed by the war crisis and whether poetry has the power to influence the society without producing political propaganda.

This study performs a reading of Wittgenstein’s thought that integrates his sometimes sidelined remarks on aesthetics and belief, and emphasises consideration of language use on the level of practice. It analyses the many ways that Wittgenstein engages with the inexpressible or the limits of expression through comparison with poetry as a practice. The potential of a Wittgensteinian method of literary analysis concentrating on grammatical structures, exemplary forms of expression and quotidian meaning-making is shown by viewing several poets’ work in connection with specific forms of the inexpressible. This thesis consists of three parts. The first chapter surveys previous applications of Wittgenstein to aesthetic appreciation and analysis, and considers common interpretations of his earlier and later work. Incorporating a wide range of Wittgenstein sources allows a new reading to emerge that gives appropriate weight to his hitherto under-researched writings. This reading is tested in Chapters 2-5, in each case studying a poet or poets alongside a philosophical text or topic. Chapter 2 uses the negative theology of Pseudo-Dionysius to probe the ineffable; through Cora Diamond’s resolute reading of the Tractatus, Kei Miller’s ‘Church Women’ series and John Burnside’s intimate ineffable of ‘Parousia’, a grammatical understanding of inexpressibility emerges. Chapter 3 compares John McDowell’s minimal realism in Mind and World with Wallace Steven’s Supreme Fiction, demonstrating how Stevens’ – and Wittgenstein’s – rich conception of experience can close off a number of philosophical lacunae. Chapter 4 concentrates on the poetry of Jorie Graham, whose conception of the self is saturated with language. Parallels with Wittgenstein’s methodology are drawn, and some reminders issued to curb the excesses of postmodern accounts of subjectivity. The focus in Chapter 5 moves to the use of cartographical metaphor in Philosophical Investigations and Kei Miller’s poetry. The constraints of specific discourses on our thinking are examined, together with poetry’s potential for laying bare or reinvigorating the pictures by which we navigate. Finally, Chapter 6 discusses a selection of poetic projects completed alongside my research, to extend the reading of Wittgenstein into the area of creative practice. This thesis demonstrates Wittgenstein’s prolonged engagement with the limits of expression and with poetry, as well as the profit of a Wittgensteinian approach to poetry. It thereby questions a number of current responses to Wittgenstein’s work, and displays its own original creative outcomes.

Geoffrey Hill’s The Orchards of Syon (2002) occupies a contradictory position in twenty-first century poetry in being a major religious work in a post-religious age. Contemporary secular and atheistic insistence on the fundamentally crafted and flawed nature of religious faith has led Hill not to the abandoning of religious vision, but to a theologically disciplined approach to syntax, grammar and etymology. This dissertation examines Hill’s claim to a poetics of agnostic faith that mediate his alienation from a cynical and debased Anglophone contemporaneity. The oxymoronic nature of a faith co-existent with existential loss is the primary focus. The semantic distinction between paradox and poetic oxymoron is examined, and the agonistic and aporetic dimensions of the oxymoron are considered as affording theological significance. Poetic oxymoron as site of both foolish babbling and Pentecostal exuberance is made explicit, as is Hill’s relation to the oxymoronic nature of beatitudinous expression and the Kenotic Hymn. Hill’s reading of and relation to other theologically engaged poets is outlined. Thomas Hardy’s tragic-comic vision, Gerard Manley Hopkins’ restrained rapture in ‘The Windhover’, and T. S. Eliot’s expression of kenotic dissolution in ‘Marina’ are read as precursors to Hill’s revisionary God-language. William Empson’s significant difficulties with aspects of Hopkins’ and Eliot’s poetics is appraised as evidence of an oxymoronic and theological dimension within poetic ambiguity. Hill’s imperative to embody and enact theological vision and responsibility is tested in a reading of The Orchards of Syon. Paul Ricoeur’s perception of the religious significance of atheism is provocation for my own creative practice, as is the performative theology implicit in both Graham Shaw’s hermeneutic approach, and Hill’s visionary philology. Creative process draws on Simone Weil’s notion of decreation, the kenotic paradigm as exemplified in the life and writings of Dietrich Bonhoeffer, and the continuing secular vitality of the apostrophic lyric mode.

This thesis aims to engage with the poetry of Scotland and Greek-speaking Cyprus, and examine the relationship between poetry defined as high culture and articulations of national identity in the two places. Scotland and Cyprus share characteristics that make the establishment of a single, coherent national identity with the appearance of permanence challenging, including their relationships with culturally dominant neighbours, competition between local and official languages, and the insecurity of their status as nations. Both Scotland and Cyprus have historically had hybrid identities; in Scotland, British identity is made problematic by England's cultural dominance, while in Cyprus Greek-speakers have a conflicted relationship with Greece. This is made more complex by the fact that Scotland's political union with England may be ending, while Cyprus is divided in half as a result of tensions between Christian and Muslim populations and the unsubtle past involvement of Greece and Turkey in the island's affairs. This thesis aims to locate trends of national identity through the analysis of poetry and its reception in three distinct contexts. Part 1 analyses the evolution of Scottish and Greek-speaking Cypriot 'national character' through the poetry of national poets Robert Burns and Vasilis Michailidis, and the poets Walter Scott and Dimitris Lipertis. Part 2 explores the effects of modernity on the expression of national identities in literature through the lens of the Modernist movement, and how this was adopted and modified in Scotland and Cyprus. This is discussed with reference to three poets, Hugh MacDiarmid, Kostas Montis and Edwin Morgan, and their treatment of the national past and search for a national literary language. Finally, Part 3 analyses deliberate engagements of poets with national identity and issues of national importance, using Seamus Heaney's idea of 'adequate' poetry as a guide. Two functions of poetry are considered: the role it can play in transforming the landscape into the national homeland, and its potential to address communal trauma, and transform it into a unifying experience.

During the eighteenth century, the dominant rhetorical and explanatory power of civic humanism was gradually challenged by the rise of a new organising language in political economy. Political economic thought permitted radically different descriptions of what laudable private and public behaviour might be: it proposed that self-interest was often more beneficial to society at large than public-mindedness; that luxury had its uses and might not be a threat to liberty and political integrity; that landownership was no particular guarantee of virtue or disinterest; and that there was nothing inherently superior about frugality and self-sufficiency. These new ideas about civil society formed the intellectual basis of a large body of verse written during the long eighteenth century (at mid-century in particular), in which poets engaged enthusiastically with political economic arguments and defences of commercial activity, and celebrated the wealth and plenty of Britain as a modern trading nation. The work of my thesis is to examine a contradiction in the way in which these political economic ideas were handled. Forward-looking and confident poetry on public themes did not develop pioneering forms to suit the modernity of its outlook: instead, poets articulated such themes in verse by appropriating and reframing traditional genres, which in some cases involved engaging with inherited moral values and philosophical preferences entirely at odds with the intellectual material in hand. This inventive kind of generic revision is the central interest of the thesis. It aims to describe a number of problematic meeting points between new political economic thought and handed-down poetic formulae, and it will focus attention on some of the ways in which poets manipulated the forms and tropes they inherited in order to manage – and make the most of – the resulting contradictions.

The aim of this thesis is to arrive at a characterisation of twentieth century poetry and science by means of a detailed study of the work of four poets who engaged extensively with science and whose writing lives spanned the greater part of the period. The study of science in the work of the four chosen poets, Hugh MacDiarmid (1892 – 1978), Judith Wright (1915 – 2000), Edwin Morgan (1920 – 2010), and Miroslav Holub (1923 – 1998), is preceded by a literature survey and an initial theoretical chapter. This initial part of the thesis outlines the interdisciplinary history of the academic subject of poetry and science, addressing, amongst other things, the challenges presented by the episodes known as the ‘two cultures' and the ‘science wars'. Seeking to offer a perspective on poetry and science more aligned to scientific materialism than is typical in the interdiscipline, a systemic challenge to Thomas Kuhn's The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962) is put forward in the first chapter. Additionally, the founding work of poetry and science, I. A. Richards's Science and Poetry (1926), is assessed both in the context in which it was written, and from a contemporary viewpoint; and, as one way to understand science in poetry, a theory of the creative misreading of science is developed, loosely based on Harold Bloom's The Anxiety of Influence (1973). The detailed study of science in poetry commences in Chapter II with Hugh MacDiarmid's late work in English, dating from his period on the Shetland Island of Whalsay (1933 – 1941). The thesis in this chapter is that this work can be seen as a radical integration of poetry and science; this concept is considered in a variety of ways including through a computational model, originally suggested by Robert Crawford. The Australian poet Judith Wright, the subject of Chapter III, is less well known to poetry and science, but a detailed engagement with physics can be identified, including her use of four-dimensional imagery, which has considerable support from background evidence. Biology in her poetry is also studied in the light of recent work by John Holmes. In Chapter IV, science in the poetry of Edwin Morgan is discussed in terms of its origin and development, from the perspective of the mythologised science in his science fiction poetry, and from the ‘hard' technological perspective of his computer poems. Morgan's work is cast in relief by readings which are against the grain of some but not all of his published comments. The thesis rounds on its theme of materialism with the fifth and final chapter which studies the work of Miroslav Holub, a poet and practising scientist in communist-era Prague. Holub's work, it is argued, represents a rare and important literary expression of scientific materialism. The focus on materialism in the thesis is not mechanistic, nor exclusive of the domain of the imagination; instead it frames the contrast between the original science and the transformed poetic version. The thesis is drawn together in a short conclusion.