This qualitative study explores spiritual issues in relation to coping with loss in situations of chronic and terminal illness. An Heideggerian hermeneutic phenomenological approach was chosen as the most appropriate methodology for exploring nurses’ lived experience of utilising spirituality as a means of helping patients cope with loss. My prior knowledge both brought me to the subject of study and influenced my interpretation of data. To ensure transparency of method this prior knowledge is outlined in my fore-structure of understanding. A purposive sample of 12 registered nurses, 5 from hospice, 4 from community practice and 3 from a nursing home setting participated in semi-structured interviews. A stepped process of analysis of interview texts produced overarching themes which are illustrated with excerpts that collectively produce a ‘thick enough description’ intended to facilitate understanding of my interpretation of data by those who chose to read this study. Findings were illuminated by drawing on existing theoretical knowledge and concepts. My research diary and notes at interview constituted a research journal that recorded how my knowledge and understanding developed through my reflection on, and reflexive response to interview data. In this way my research journal was used to illuminate the research process. There are an increasing number of studies that consider spirituality in healthcare and how patients’ spiritual needs can be recognised and fulfilled. However, this study provides a different perspective, in particular, examples of how nurses’ development as persons may render them not only a spiritual resource in themselves, but also, contribute to how they become proficient in spiritual care in situations of loss. There were four overriding ways in which the development of this aptitude was evident. Firstly, belief provided them with a means of coming to an understanding of why things happen and so helped them accommodate repeated exposure to patients’ grief. Secondly, being a spiritual carer involved establishing a relationship with patients through ‘connected’ communication. Thirdly, becoming proficient in spiritual care was reflected by an increasing maturity in engaging with patients’ real life and death issues, which was sustained by taking ‘time out’ to reconnect with the self. Finally, belonging to a team whose culture reflected a spirit of reciprocal support was crucial when patient care was emotionally demanding.

This thesis critically analyzes Axel Honneth’s theories of misrecognition and struggles for recognition and argues for two main conceptualizations to address shortcomings in his theories. The first conceptualization is that recognition and misrecognition behaviors are better understood along three dimensions of engagement—norms, individuals, and actions. We can use this multidimensional view to identify misrecognitions in which the problems are in vertical recognition, either disengagement from norms or engagement with problematic norms, and misrecognitions in which the problems are in horizontal recognition, during which there is insufficient or improper engagement with other individuals. The multidimensional view of misrecognition overcomes Honneth’s overly positive picture of recognition and lack of a robust account of misrecognition and shows how negative recognition fits into the normative structure of social life while acknowledging the positive value of recognition. The second conceptualization is an expanded view of struggles for recognition that takes such struggles beyond group political conflicts into everyday social experiences. I identify two problems in Honneth’s formulation of struggles for recognition: his premise that emotional experiences of disrespect motivate struggles for recognition is contradictory without an account of individual agency, and his theoretical reliance on political resistance movements neglects other paths responses to injustice can take. To address these problems, I argue that there are two types of struggles for recognition, affirmational (related to practical identity) and rectificatory (related to efforts to change social circumstances), and that individuals’ familiarity with affirmational struggles enables them to engage in rectificatory struggles against injustice. Individuals respond to injustice in varied ways other than organized political action, and this is significant for critical theory. The common thread in these two conceptualizations is the importance of individuals’ normative experiences in ethical life and social change. Power structures shape social relations, but individuals actively instigate many instances of injustice.

Novas formas terapêuticas e o progresso da medicina proporcionaram a emergência de infecções por Rhodotorula mucilaginosa em pacientes imunocomprometidos. Este estudo tem o objetivo de avaliar a suscetibilidade dos isolados de R. mucilaginosa aos antifúngicos convencionais, verificar a habilidade destes em modificar seu perfil de suscetibilidade após exposição a crescentes concentrações de anfotericina B (AMB) e comparar a atividade antifúngica de AMB ou voriconazol (VCR) em combinação com fármacos diversos frente aos dois grupos de R. mucilaginosa. Trinta e cinco isolados de R. mucilaginosa proveniente de pacientes foram estudados. Os isolados foram identificados baseado em métodos microbiológicos e moleculares. Definimos como grupo I os isolados fúngicos originais e grupo II como estes mesmos isolados após serem submetidos a crescentes concentrações de AMB. A exposição à AMB foi realizada segundo Fekete-Forgács et al., com algumas modificações. Os testes de susceptibilidade foram realizados de acordo com a técnica de microdiluição em caldo (CLSI M27-A3). AMB, caspofungina, fluconazol e VRC foram testadas isoladamente e ciprofloxacino, levofloxacino, anlodipino, ciclosporina A, fluoxetina, ibuprofeno, sinvastatina e varfarina foram testadas em combinação com AMB ou VRC, utilizando a técnica de microdiluição em caldo “checkerboard”. Os isolados do grupo I foram suscetíveis a baixas concentrações de AMB. A suscetibilidade ao VCR foi muito reduzida. Fluconazol e caspofungina não exibiram atividade frente a R. mucilaginosa. A exposição prolongada à AMB modificou a suscetibilidade dos isolados. Os testes de suscetibilidade com os isolados do grupo II mostraram elevadas Concentrações Inibitórias Mínimas (CIMs) para AMB e a inibição pelo VCR requisitou CIMs mais elevadas. No grupo I, a combinação de AMB + ibuprofeno mostrou o maior número de interações sinérgicas. No grupo II, a combinação com o maior número de interações sinérgicas foi AMB + sinvastatina. No grupo I, quando VCR foi combinado com levofloxacino, um potente sinergismo foi observado frente a isolados de R. mucilaginosa. No grupo II, combinação de VRC + ciclosporina A mostrou um potente sinergismo. Os tratamentos para infecção por R. mucilaginosa são restritos e a terapia combinada pode ser uma alternativa quando novos fármacos são combinados com aqueles já disponíveis no mercado. / New therapies and medical progress have led to emerging fungal infections by Rhodotorula mucilaginosa in immunocompromised patients. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the susceptibility profile of Rhodotorula mucilaginosa, verify the ability of this species to change its susceptibility profile after exposure to high concentrations of AMB, and compare the antifungal activity of AMB or voriconazole (VCR) plus combinations of non-antifungal medications against the two groups of R. mucilaginosa. Thirty-five strains of R. mucilaginosa isolated from patients were studied. The isolates were identified based on microbiological and molecular methods. We defined group I to be the original strains isolated from patients and group II as the same strains after in vitro exposure to AMB. AMB exposure was assayed according to Fekete-Forgács et al., with some modifications. Susceptibility tests were performed using the broth microdilution method (CLSI M27-A3). AMB, caspofungin, fluconazole (FLC), and VRC were tested alone and ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin, amlodipine, cyclosporine A, fluoxetine, ibuprofen, simvastatin, and warfarin were tested in combination with AMB or VRC, using the broth microdilution checkerboard technique. All group I isolates were susceptible to low concentrations of AMB. Susceptibility to VRC was quite poor. FLC and CAS exhibited no activity against R. mucilaginosa. Prolonged exposure to AMB changed the susceptibility of the isolates. The susceptibility tests with strains from group II showed high minimal inhibitory concentration (MICs) for AMB and the inhibition by VRC required more elevated MICs. In group I, the combination AMB + ibuprofen demonstrated the highest number of synergistic interactions. In group II, the most synergistic interactions was AMB + simvastatin. In group I, When VCR was combined with levofloxacin, a strong synergism was demonstrate against R. mucilaginosa isolates. In group II, VRC + cyclosporine A combination demonstrated a potent synergism. Treatments for R. mucilaginosa are restricted and a multidrug approach seems to be an alternative by administering novel chemical entity drugs with drugs currently on the market simultaneously.

Children's learning within the home can be characterised by variety in the cognitive, behavioural and affective contributions of both mother and child, as well as by the wider environmental influences on family functioning. The concept of scaffolding may be useful for understanding home learning processes and provide a framework for new knowledge in order to develop a better understanding of what is required for successful learning at home. The research has three main aims based on an adaptation of the Process-Person- Context-Time (PPCT) model of development (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006). The first aim was to investigate the role of the child's behaviour during scaffolding interactions, test the inter-relationship between the child's and mother's behaviours and to identify how variations in these behaviours impact mutual intersubjectivity. The second aim was to examine how person characteristics of the mother and child, along with the home environment, contribute to the process of scaffolding across time. The third aim was to conduct a preliminary study in Russia and to test cross-cultural patterns and their determinants between UK and Russian families. A longitudinal cross-cultural design has been adopted with two-time point measurements in England, approximately seven months apart, and cross-sectional design in Russia. Using non-probability sampling methodology, 68 dyads (children, four - five years old) were recruited for the English sample and 16 dyads took part in the Russian study. The research used cross-informant methodology to collect data during home visits and through observation of scaffolding interactions during simple problem-solving tasks. The results contribute to the base of existing knowledge with a number of findings: 1) the scaffolding process is bidirectional with unique contributions from mother and child; 2) intersubjectivity within the dyad is important in understanding scaffolding interactions across time; 3) individual differences in maternal emotional and social abilities, but not parenting aspects, predict maternal scaffolding behaviour; 4) child's cognitive and emotional abilities explained their behaviour later in time; 5) number of siblings played an important role in the mother's and child's behaviour, while household chaos was not significant; 6) the cultural context plays a unique role in shaping scaffolding practices within families.

Thesis (M.S.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Architecture, 1998. / Includes bibliographical references. / From 1933 to 1976, Professor Lawrence B. Anderson taught in the MIT Department of Architecture, and from 1947 to 1971, he served as its chairman and dean. Concurrently, from 1937 to 1972 , he was principal partner in the architecture firm that designed the first important modern building on an American university campus in 1939. During a lifetime of teaching and professional practice, LBA gained knowledge and wisdom. As an eminent professional adviser, he influenced architectural projects throughout the world. Because he was a remarkably clear thinker and accomplished and prolific writer, we are fortunate that his papers remain accessible to us. Professor Anderson taught generations of students much more than architectural design: he taught professional good manners , how to practice architecture responsibly, with grace, style, and decorum. Through his papers , he will continue to teach for generations into the future. In 1994, Lawrence Anderson died at age 87. This thesis documents the whole of his prodigious output of personal and professional papers, published and unpublished, at their present eleven locations. It is the completion of the first stage of creating a coherent archive. / by Victoria Laguette. / M.S.

Seminario para optar al tìtulo de Ingeniero Comercial, Mención Administración / Durante los últimos años, ha estado en boga en nuestro país una nueva forma de hacer empresa. Este modelo rompe con el esquema tradicional, en el cual, la razón de ser de cualquier compañía es maximizar la utilidad de los accionistas. Las llamadas empresas B son aquellas que buscan resolver un problema social o medioambiental a través del mercado, tratando de generar solamente externalidades positivas en el entorno. Luego de la crisis global que afectó al mundo a comienzos del 2008, la ciudadanía se mostró preocupada e indignada con el modelo económico y con la actitud que habían tenido aquellas personas que, desde el mundo privado, habían desencadenado este gran desastre financiero. Un exceso de ambición y codicia por parte de unos pocos, terminaron por hartar a muchas personas que exigían un cambio en la forma de actuar de las empresas. El surgimiento de esta nueva ciudadanía empoderada, con mayor acceso a la tecnología y cansada de los abusos, fue un hito clave para el desarrollo de este nuevo tipo de firmas en el mundo. El nacimiento de las empresas B ocurre luego de un problema judicial sufrido por los dueños de una compañía de helados en Estados Unidos, los cuales se negaron a vender su empresa a una multinacional. A pesar de que la 4 ley no jugó a favor de estas personas, y finalmente tuvieron que venderla, fue un momento clave para generar esta nueva forma de ver el mundo corporativo, en donde el aspecto social y medioambiental tomaron un rol fundamental bajo este nuevo modelo de gestión. “Ser la mejor empresa para el mundo, y no del mundo” corresponde a su lema principal y a lo que aspiran. Este foco las lleva a realizar buenas prácticas con todos los stakeholders involucrados. Utilizar el poder privado para generar beneficios a las personas y el entorno, generar comunidades de práctica y conexiones entre los actores, además de predicar una cultura basada en la pasión y la idealización de un mundo sin fines perversos, corresponden a los cimientos de las empresas B. La ONG certificadora B Lab, tiene los pasos definidos y requerimientos específicos para optar por este camino, el cual puede ser tomado por cualquier tipo de empresa que tenga la convicción de formar parte de esta comunidad. A pesar de que el proceso pueda ser un poco engorroso para algunas firmas, formar parte de este grupo tiene beneficios tangibles e intangibles importantes, capaces de generar ahorros para las empresas y permitirles acceso a recursos que de otra forma no podrían obtener. Además, un nuevo tipo de inversionistas, que buscan generar impacto positivo, juegan un rol fundamental para hacer crecer y darle oportunidades a estas compañías. 5 En la actualidad, la comunidad de empresas certificadas alrededor del mundo es cada vez más importante. Ya existen más de 1.000 compañías certificadas con presencia en 34 países. En el caso de Chile, hay 51 empresas que han conseguido el estatus B, con lo que nuestro país se ubica como el mayor exponente a nivel latinoamericano, y tercero a nivel mundial (superado sólo por Estados Unidos y Canadá). El panorama de las empresas B, tanto para Chile como en el mundo se ve positivo y con altas tasas de crecimiento. Dado el cambio de mentalidad que ha tenido la sociedad, cada vez las exigencias son mayores por parte de la comunidad hacia las empresas, lo cual ha llevado a que sea importante considerar otros intereses. En Chile, la capacidad de expansión a otros rubros que este tipo de compañías pudiesen experimentar en el futuro y los proyectos de ley en los que se ha trabajado, corresponden a oportunidades de desarrollo para esta comunidad. Asimismo, incluir estos nuevos modelos de hacer empresa en las mallas curriculares de las universidades, corresponde a un punto fundamental para lograr generar un cambio en la mentalidad en los futuros profesionales, para así impregnarlos de una visión íntegra que se centre en la preocupación por el entorno y la comunidad.

Immunoglobulin (Ig) gene diversification plays an essential role in adaptive immunity. Faced with a continuous yet varied stream of self, non-self, and possibly harmful molecules, many organisms have mechanisms in their arsenal that have evolved to match the diversity of the antigens they encounter. In humans and mice, developing B and T lymphocytes go through a first round of genomic alteration — V(D)J recombination — in the bone marrow and the thymus, respectively. B cells can subsequently undergo two additional Ig gene diversification processes in secondary lymphoid tissues. Through somatic hypermutation (SHM), Ig variable regions of stimulated germinal center (GC)-forming B cells are mutated and further diversified, enabling affinity maturation. During class-switch recombination (CSR), on the other hand, B cells in the GC or prior to entering the GC recombine Ig constant regions, swapping the IgM-encoding locus for another isotype constant regions gene (e.g., IgG1, IgG3, IgE, IgA) to allow for different effector functions. Both B cell-specific genomic alterations are initiated when the single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) mutator enzyme activation-induced cytidine deaminase (AID) catalyzes the removal of the amino group off deoxycytidine residues, resulting in deoxyuridines and dU:dG mismatches. Low-fidelity cellular responses to the presence of dU, including the mismatch repair (MMR) and the base-excision repair (BER) pathways, are then thought to introduce mutations in SHM and CSR, as well as cause double-strand breaks (DSBs) repaired through canonical and alternative non-homologous end-joining in CSR. Though necessary for proper physiological function, these lymphocyte genome diversification processes are rife with danger for B cells and there is strong selective pressure to carefully orchestrate and target them so as not to threaten the genomic integrity of the cells through breaks or other mutations at non-Ig loci. Yet, these events can still occur, as demonstrated by the implication of AID with translocations found in some cancers (e.g., c- MYC:IGH in Burkitt’s lymphoma). Therefore, the mechanisms underlying AID mutagenic activity targeting to physiological deamination substrates have been the focus of several studies. Protein kinase A (PKA)-dependent phosphorylation of AID at its serine 38 residue has been shown to enable its interaction with replication protein A (RPA) before binding to ssDNA. Others have reported that SPT5 helps target AID to sites of RNA polymerase II (Pol II) stalling, such as the Ig switch sequences. Another cofactor, the RNA exosome complex, helps target the ssDNA mutator AID to both strands of DNA in vivo. The RNA exosome had hitherto been described in the context of RNA processing and degradation as 3’ → 5’ exoribonuclease. Sterile transcript-generating transcription at Ig loci was known to be required for proper AID catalytic activity; the newly described link between the RNA exosome and AID activity raised the prospect that RNA processing, and not mere transcription, might be playing a role in shaping the diversification of the immune repertoire in B lymphocytes. During CSR, transient three-strand structures called R loops are generated. R loops are formed as the nascent transcript invades the DNA duplex, hybridizing to the template strand, and displacing the non-template one. The G-rich nature of the non-template strand is posited to help stabilize the R loop, which allows the ssDNA mutator AID to use the exposed, non-template strand as a substrate. AID must then access the template strand. Here, we investigate the role that the RNA exosome and a potential cofactor, the putative RNA/DNA helicase senataxin (SETX), play in the sequence of biological events that result in CSR while protecting the cell from R-loop accumulation-associated genomic instability.

O objetivo principal deste estudo foi avaliar a frequência de cepas do HBV com mutações de resistência aos análogos nucleos(t)ídeos (AN) utilizados no tratamento da hepatite B entre indivíduos cronicamente infectados, não submetidos a tratamento, procedentes de diferentes regiões do Brasil. Além disso, foram avaliadas a presença de mutações que alteram a antigenicidade do HBsAg promovendo escape dos anticorpos anti-HBs; mutações nos genes pré-core/core e a associação dos diferentes subgenótipos com as mutações encontradas e características demográficas e laboratoriais dos pacientes. Foram incluídas 779 amostras de soro de pacientes com infecção crônica pelo HBV e virgens de tratamento com AN ou interferon, as quais foram coletadas no período de 2006 a 2011. Os pacientes eram procedentes dos seguintes estados brasileiros: Pará, Maranhão, Bahia, Minas Gerais, São Paulo, Paraná e Rio Grande do Sul. O DNA do HBV foi extraído das amostras de soro utilizando o Kit QIAamp DNA Blood Mini Kit (Qiagen) e posteriormente foi realizada a amplificação das regiões S/polimerase (S/P) e pré-core/core (PCC) do genoma viral por nested PCR. O fragmento amplificado foi submetido a sequenciamento direto em sequenciador automático de DNA (ABI 3500) e as sequências obtidas foram analisadas para identificação dos genótipos e subgenótipos do HBV, pesquisa de mutações na polimerase, no HBsAg e nos genes pré-core/core. A região S/Pol foi amplificada e sequenciada com sucesso em 702 amostras, as quais foram incluídas para atender aos objetivos deste estudo. Entre as 702 amostras analisadas sete genótipos e 12 subgenótipos do HBV foram identificados. O subgenótipo A1 foi o mais frequente (63,7%, 447/702), seguido pelo HBV/D3 (14,5%, 102/702). Os demais genótipos e subgenótipos encontrados e suas frequências foram as seguintes: A2 (3,3%, 23/702), A3 (0,1%, 1/702), B1 (0,1%, 1/702), B2 (0,1%, 1/702), C2 (0,9%, 6/702), D1 (0,9%, 6/702), D2 (4,6%, 32/702), D4 (5,1%, 36/702), D com subgenótipo não identificado (0,7%, 5/702), E (0,6%, 4/702), F2a (4,6%, 32/702), F4 (0,4%, 3/702), e G (0,4%, 3/702). Cepas do HBV com mutações de resistência (rtS202G, rtM204V/I, rtA194T, rtM250I, rtA181T/S, rtT184S) associadas ou não a mutações compensatórias (rtL80I, rtV173L, rtL180M, rtV207I) foram identificadas em 1,6% (11/702) das amostras analisadas. Cepas com mutações potencialmente associadas com resistência ao adefovir (rtS85A, rtL217R, rtI233V, rtN238T, rtN238D, rtN248H, rtV214A,e rtQ215S) ou ao entecavir (rtS219A) foram identificadas em 7,7% (54/702) e 2,6% (16/702) dos pacientes, respectivamente. Cinquenta e sete (8,5%) amostras apresentaram cepas do HBV com mutações na principal região hidrofílica do HBsAg previamente relacionadas com escape dos anticorpos anti-HBs ou com prejuízo na secreção do HBsAg. Foram feitas análises estatísticas para avaliar a correlação entre os subgenótipos do HBV mais frequentes na casuística (A1, A2, D1, D2, D3, D4 e F2a) e a presença de mutações nos genes PCC. Dentre as mutações nos genes PCC associadas com redução ou falha na expressão do HBeAg, as mutações A1762T/T1764A estiveram associadas aos subgenótipos A1 e F2a; G1862T e mutações nas posições 1809-1812 ao subgenótipo A1; G1896A e/ou G1899A aos subgenótipos D2, D3 e D4. Mutações associadas com evolução da doença foram detectadas e entre essas as mutações C1766T e T1768A estiveram associadas aos subgenótipos A1 e F2a, e a mutação G1888A foi associada ao subgenótipo A1. As cepas do HBV que circulam nas diferentes regiões brasileiras estudadas apresentam grande variabilidade genética e a distribuição dos genótipos e subgenótipos reflete a formação histórica de cada região e do fluxo migratório mais recente. A frequência de cepas do HBV com mutações de resistência aos AN circulando entre pacientes virgens de tratamento com esses medicamentos nas diferentes regiões do Brasil estudadas é baixa, sendo que o perfil de mutações que confere resistência total à lamivudina e parcial ao entecavir parece ser o mais disseminado. Embora tenham sido detectados casos de infecção com cepas do HBV portando mutações com grande impacto na antigenicidade dessa proteína todas as amostras apresentaram HBsAg detectável. Pacientes com HBeAg negativo foram mais frequentes na casuística estudada, independente do subgenótipo. As mutações encontradas nos genes PCC sugerem que há perfis de mutações diferentes envolvidos na negatividade do HBeAg para cada subgenótipo / The main aim of this study was to evaluate the frequency of HBV strains harboring mutations that confer resistance to nucleos(t)ide analogues (NA) used to hepatitis B treatment among treatment-naïve patients with chronic hepatitis B from different Brazilian region. Furthermore, we evaluated the presence of mutations that alter the antigenicity of HBsAg causing anti-HBs escape; mutations in genes pre-core/core and the association of different subgenotypes with the mutations detected and demographic and laboratory characteristics of the patients. Serum samples from 779 treatment-naïve patients with chronic HBV infection were included in this study. The samples were collected between 2006 to 2011 and the patients were from the following states: Pará, Maranhão, Bahia, Minas Gerais, São Paulo, Paraná and Rio Grande do Sul. HBV DNA was extracted from serum samples using the QIAamp DNA Blood Mini Kit (Qiagen) and amplification of S/polymerase (S/Pol) and pre-core/core (PCC) regions were performed by nested PCR. The amplified PCR products were submitted to sequencing in an automatic DNA sequencer (ABI 3500). The sequences obtained were analyzed to classify HBV genotypes/subgenotypes and to analyze the presence of mutations. S/Pol region was amplified and sequenced successfully from 702 samples, which were included in this study. Among these 702 samples, seven genotypes and 12 subgenotypes have been identified. HBV subgenotype A1 was the most frequent (63.7%, 447/702), followed by HBV/D3 (14.5%; 102/ 702). The remaining genotypes and subgenotypes identified and their frequencies were as follows: A2 (3.3%, 23/702), A3 (0.1%, 1/702), B1 (0.1%, 1/702), B2 (0.1%, 1/702), C2 (0.9%, 6/702), D1 (0.9%, 6/702), D2 (4.6%, 32/702), D4 (5.1%, 36/702), D unclassified subgenotype (0.7%, 5/702), E (0.6%, 4/702), F2a (4.6%, 32/702), F4 (0.4%, 3/702), and G (0.4%, 3/702). HBV strains harboring mutations conferring NA resistance alone (rtS202G, rtM204V/I, rtA194T, rtM250I, rtA181T/S, rtT184S) or combined with compensatory mutations (rtL80I, rtV173L, rtL180M, rtV207I) were identified in 1.6% (11/702) of the patients. Isolates harboring mutations potentially associated with adefovir resistance (rtS85A, rtL217R, rtI233V, rtN238T, rtN238D, rtN248H, rtV214A, and rtQ215S) or entecavir resistance (rtS219A) were identified in 7.7% (54/702) and 2.6% (16/702) of the patients, respectively. HBV with HBsAg mutations previous related with anti-HBs escape or impaired secretion were detected in 8.5% (57/702) of the samples. Statistical analyzes were performed to assess the correlation between the more frequent HBV subgenotypes found in this study (A1, A2, D1, D2, D3, D4 and F2a ) and mutations in PCC genes. Among the mutations found in these genes that were associated with reduction or failure in HBeAg synthesis, A1762T/T1764A mutations were associated to subgenotypes A1 and F2a; G1862T and mutations at positions 1809-1812 to subgenotype A1; G1896A and/or G1899A to subgenotypes D2, D3 and D4. Other mutations associated with disease progression were found: C1766T and T1768A mutations were associated with subgenotypes A1 and F2a, and the G1888A mutation was associated with subgenotype A1. HBV strains circulating in different Brazilian regions studied showed high genetic variability and distribution of genotypes and subgenotypes reflects the population formation history of each region and the occurrence of recent events of migration. The frequency of HBV strains with NA resistance mutations circulating among treatment-naive patients in different regions of Brazil studied is low and the profile of mutations that confer total resistance to lamivudine and partial resistance to entecavir is more widespread. Although some cases of infection have been detected with HBV strains carrying mutations associated with major impact on the antigenicity of this protein, all samples had detectable HBsAg. HBeAg negative cases were more frequent in the studied population, regardless of subgenotype. Different pattern of mutations were found in PCC genes, suggesting that different mechanisms are involved in HBeAg negativity for each subgenotype

This thesis examines the interrelationship between the concepts of evolution, scepticism and conservatism in the thought of Friedrich August von Hayek (1899-1992). It argues that the concept of evolution plays a vital role in Hayek's epistemology and social philosophy. It proposes that Hayek's understanding of the concept of evolution shaped his early writings on theoretical psychology and the formation of the mind. He subsequently developed his initial ideas in a more systematic way and discussed them in more depth in his writings on the epistemology and methodology of the social sciences. Hayek maintained that the underlying mechanism of the formation of mind and society is the mechanism of evolution. From Hayek's point of view, the human mind and human society have simultaneously evolved through the process of evolution over millions of years. Hayek offered his evolutionary approach as an alternative to 'constructive rationalism'. The thesis argues that Hayek's evolutionary approach led him to adopt a scepticism about the role of reason in society. Hayek maintained that reason itself is the result of human civilization, a civilization that became possible due to rules and traditions that cannot be justified a priori. Hayek's scepticism about the role and capacity of abstract reason and his emphasis on social institutions and traditions had placed his position close to conservatism. Although Hayek rejected any relation between his ideas and conservatism, this thesis tries to show why such a reading of Hayek's political thought is plausible. After identifying three doctrines of conservatism, i.e. scepticism/pessimism, traditionalism and organicism, this thesis argues that there are some significant similarities between Hayek's political thought and conservatism.

No description available.