A hipertensão arterial é um problema de saúde pública no Brasil, pois aproximadamente 20 % da população adulta desenvolve hipertensão essencial, cujas causas ainda não são conhecidas. No entanto, sua gênese pode estar relacionada com disfunção nas áreas do sistema nervoso central (SNC) que regulam o sistema cardiovascular. O núcleo do trato solitário (NTS) e o bulbo ventrolateral são áreas importantes no controle neural da pressão arterial. Os receptores de adenosina A2a (rA2a) são encontrados em todo o SNC e estão relacionados com estudos terapêuticos de diversas doenças. No NTS a estimulação dos rA2a provoca ajustes pontuais em outros sistemas de neurotransmissão, além de diminuir a pressão arterial. A nicotina é uma molécula com uma vasta faixa de efeitos modulatórios em nosso organismo. Entre esses efeitos se destacam a capacidade de interagir com diversos sistemas de neurotransmissão nas áreas do bulbo relacionadas com a regulação da pressão arterial e de antecipar e/ou intensificar o desenvolvimento da hipertensão em sujeitos com pré-disposição genética. Desta forma, o objetivo do presente trabalho é avaliar o efeito modulatório da nicotina sobre o rA2a em cultura mista de neurônios e células gliais da porção dorso-medial do bulbo de ratos geneticamente hipertenso (SHR) e normotensos (WKY). Para isso, utilizaram-se técnicas como a de PCR em tempo real, Western Blotting e análise de ligação do receptor. Nossos resultados demonstraram que: 1) em condição basal células de ratos normotensos apresentam maior ligação do rA2a do que células de ratos hipertensos; 2) tratamento com nicotina resultou na diminuição da ligação do receptor em ambas as cepas, com um efeito de maior magnitude em células de ratos WKY; 3) nas duas linhagens o tratamento com nicotina alterou os níveis protéicos do rA2a, assim como o RNAm do receptor; 4) a linhagem e o tratamento separadamente, como a interação entre ambos influenciaram na expressão do RNAm , níveis protéicos e ligação do rA2a nas células dos ratos WKY e SHR. Por fim, os resultados apresentados aqui indicam que o rA2a em células de ratos hipertensos tem sua função deprimida em comparação com as células de ratos normotensos; e que a nicotina foi capaz de modular o funcionamento do rA2a, o qual pode influenciar no controle da pressão arterial. Esses dados são bastante interessantes, pois abrem novas perspectivas de análise dos mecanismos intracelulares envolvidos na modulação dos rA2a pela nicotina, assim como a importância desse sistema no desenvolvimento da hipertensão / Hypertension is one of the most common worldwide diseases afflicting humans. Because of the associated with morbidity and mortality and the cost to the society, it became an important public health challenge in Brazil. The mechanisms involved in development of hypertension still remain unclear However, hypertension can result from neuronal network imbalance in areas of the central nervous system that control blood pressure. The nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS) plays an important role in cardiovascular control. Within the NTS there are several neurotransmitters and neuromodulatory substances, such as adenosine, which acts on purinoreceptors A2a (A2ar). The A2ar modulates neurotransmission in the NTS and its activation may induce decrease in blood pressure by different mechanisms. Nicotine is a molecule that cross the blood-brain barrier and acts in several areas of central nervous system including the NTS. In this nucleus, nicotine is able to interact with some neurotransmitter systems and contributes for the development of hypertension in subjects with genetic predisposition to this disease. The goal of this study was to analyze the modulatory effects of nicotine on A2ar in cultured neurons and glial cells from medulla oblongata of normotensive (WKY) and spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR). By means of real time PCR, Western Blotting and binding receptor assay. We have demonstrated that in basal condition cells of WKY presents increased binding of A2ar than the cells of SHR. Nicotine treatment induced a decrease in the binding of A2ar in both strains, however, this response was more pronounced in cells of WKY than SHR. Changes in mRNA and protein levels of A2ar was also observed in response to nicotine treatment. The strains and treatment separately, as well as the interaction between them influenced mRNA expression, protein level and binding of A2ar in NTS cells of WKY and SHR rats. Finally, these results show for the first time changes in A2ar mRNA expression, protein level and binding in cells from the medulla oblongata of WKY and SHR rats, as well as, the nicotine modulation upon this system, which might influence cardiovascular control. These data open up new approaches for the study of intracellular mechanisms involved in the modulation of adenosine A2a receptor by nicotine, as well as the importance of this interaction in the development of hypertension.

A hipertensão arterial é um problema de saúde pública no Brasil, pois aproximadamente 20 % da população adulta desenvolve hipertensão essencial, cujas causas ainda não são conhecidas. No entanto, sua gênese pode estar relacionada com disfunção nas áreas do sistema nervoso central (SNC) que regulam o sistema cardiovascular. O núcleo do trato solitário (NTS) e o bulbo ventrolateral são áreas importantes no controle neural da pressão arterial. Os receptores de adenosina A2a (rA2a) são encontrados em todo o SNC e estão relacionados com estudos terapêuticos de diversas doenças. No NTS a estimulação dos rA2a provoca ajustes pontuais em outros sistemas de neurotransmissão, além de diminuir a pressão arterial. A nicotina é uma molécula com uma vasta faixa de efeitos modulatórios em nosso organismo. Entre esses efeitos se destacam a capacidade de interagir com diversos sistemas de neurotransmissão nas áreas do bulbo relacionadas com a regulação da pressão arterial e de antecipar e/ou intensificar o desenvolvimento da hipertensão em sujeitos com pré-disposição genética. Desta forma, o objetivo do presente trabalho é avaliar o efeito modulatório da nicotina sobre o rA2a em cultura mista de neurônios e células gliais da porção dorso-medial do bulbo de ratos geneticamente hipertenso (SHR) e normotensos (WKY). Para isso, utilizaram-se técnicas como a de PCR em tempo real, Western Blotting e análise de ligação do receptor. Nossos resultados demonstraram que: 1) em condição basal células de ratos normotensos apresentam maior ligação do rA2a do que células de ratos hipertensos; 2) tratamento com nicotina resultou na diminuição da ligação do receptor em ambas as cepas, com um efeito de maior magnitude em células de ratos WKY; 3) nas duas linhagens o tratamento com nicotina alterou os níveis protéicos do rA2a, assim como o RNAm do receptor; 4) a linhagem e o tratamento separadamente, como a interação entre ambos influenciaram na expressão do RNAm , níveis protéicos e ligação do rA2a nas células dos ratos WKY e SHR. Por fim, os resultados apresentados aqui indicam que o rA2a em células de ratos hipertensos tem sua função deprimida em comparação com as células de ratos normotensos; e que a nicotina foi capaz de modular o funcionamento do rA2a, o qual pode influenciar no controle da pressão arterial. Esses dados são bastante interessantes, pois abrem novas perspectivas de análise dos mecanismos intracelulares envolvidos na modulação dos rA2a pela nicotina, assim como a importância desse sistema no desenvolvimento da hipertensão / Hypertension is one of the most common worldwide diseases afflicting humans. Because of the associated with morbidity and mortality and the cost to the society, it became an important public health challenge in Brazil. The mechanisms involved in development of hypertension still remain unclear However, hypertension can result from neuronal network imbalance in areas of the central nervous system that control blood pressure. The nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS) plays an important role in cardiovascular control. Within the NTS there are several neurotransmitters and neuromodulatory substances, such as adenosine, which acts on purinoreceptors A2a (A2ar). The A2ar modulates neurotransmission in the NTS and its activation may induce decrease in blood pressure by different mechanisms. Nicotine is a molecule that cross the blood-brain barrier and acts in several areas of central nervous system including the NTS. In this nucleus, nicotine is able to interact with some neurotransmitter systems and contributes for the development of hypertension in subjects with genetic predisposition to this disease. The goal of this study was to analyze the modulatory effects of nicotine on A2ar in cultured neurons and glial cells from medulla oblongata of normotensive (WKY) and spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR). By means of real time PCR, Western Blotting and binding receptor assay. We have demonstrated that in basal condition cells of WKY presents increased binding of A2ar than the cells of SHR. Nicotine treatment induced a decrease in the binding of A2ar in both strains, however, this response was more pronounced in cells of WKY than SHR. Changes in mRNA and protein levels of A2ar was also observed in response to nicotine treatment. The strains and treatment separately, as well as the interaction between them influenced mRNA expression, protein level and binding of A2ar in NTS cells of WKY and SHR rats. Finally, these results show for the first time changes in A2ar mRNA expression, protein level and binding in cells from the medulla oblongata of WKY and SHR rats, as well as, the nicotine modulation upon this system, which might influence cardiovascular control. These data open up new approaches for the study of intracellular mechanisms involved in the modulation of adenosine A2a receptor by nicotine, as well as the importance of this interaction in the development of hypertension.

O câncer de mama é um dos tumores malignos mais comuns e que afeta um grande número de mulheres da população mundial. O processo inflamatório gerado juntamente com o crescimento descontrolado das células tumorais promove um estresse metabólico no microambiente tumoral levando ao acúmulo de adenosina extracelular decorrente da hipóxia tecidual. A adenosina gerada e seus efeitos mediados via receptor A2A (A2AR) interfere em vários subtipos celulares. Neste trabalho, avaliamos o papel do receptor A2A na indução de uma resposta de células Th17 durante o carcinoma mamário experimental, visto que estas desempenham um importante papel no crescimento e na progressão do tumor de mama invasivo. Para isso, utilizamos o modelo de carcinoma mamário murino que desenvolve (4T-1) e o que não desenvolve metástase (67NR). Nossos resultados mostraram que o tumor mamário 4T-1 apresenta alta expressão do receptor A2A comparado com o tumor 67NR. A deficiência do receptor A2a preveniu o crescimento do tumor mamário 4T- 1 e de colônias de células tumorais em sítios secundários da doença, concomitante com a diminuição da resposta de perfil Th17 e do recrutamento de neutrófilos para o sitio primário. Ainda, que as células tumorais 4T-1 apresentaram uma alta expressão dos receptores de adenosina e das ectonucleotidases (CD73 e CD39), sugerindo que a via de sinalização de adenosina exerce um efeito direto nessas células. A administração de adenosina ou AMP (trifosfato de adenosina) em culturas de células tumorais 4T-1 induziu xvi um aumento da expressão de IL-6, CCL20 e CXCL1, mediadores importantes para o recrutamento de linfócitos T produtores de IL-17 e de neutrófilos. Além disso, durante o crescimento do tumor 4T-1, observamos uma alta expressão da enzima ciclooxigenase 2 (Cox-2) comparado com o tumor 67NR. No entanto, os animais deficientes geneticamente do receptor A2A apresentaram uma redução significativa da expressão de Cox-2 no microambiente tumoral comparados com os animais BALB/c. A inibição da enzima Cox-2 com indometacina ou celecoxicib (inibidor seletivo) em animais com tumor 4T-1 preveniu o crescimento do tumor primário e, consequentemente, resultou na redução da expressão de moléculas relacionadas como o perfil de resposta de células Th17 tais como IL-6, CCL20, IL-17A e Ror?t. Esses resultados indicam que o bloqueio da via de sinalização do receptor A2A interfere na indução de resposta de células Th17, abrindo novas perspectivas para o desenvolvimento de terapias alternativas para o controle de tumores invasivos / Breast cancer is one of the most common and aggressive malignant tumors, affecting a large number of women in the worldwide population. The inflammatory process generated along with the uncontrolled growth of tumor cells promotes metabolic stress in the tumor microenvironment leading to the accumulation of extracellular adenosine due to the generation of tissue hypoxia. The generated adenosine and its effects mediated by A2A (A2AR) interfere in several cell subtypes. In this study, we evaluated the role of A2A receptor in the induction of a Th17 cell response in experimental breast carcinoma, given that these cells play an important role in invasive breast tumor growth and progression. For this, we employed the murine mammary metastatic (4T-1) and nonmetastatic carcinoma (67NR) model. Our results showed that there is high expression of adenosine A2A receptor in breast tumor 4T-1 compared to 67NR. The A2AR deficiency prevented the growth of metastatic breast tumor 4T-1 and tumor cell colonies in secondary disease sites, together with a decrease in Th17 response profile and in the neutrophils recruitment to the primary site. The tumor cells 4T-1 presented high expression of adenosine receptors and ectonucleotidases (CD73 and CD39), suggesting that the adenosine signaling pathway has a direct effect on these cells. Adenosine or AMP (adenosine triphosphate) administration in tumoral 4T-1 cell cultures induced an increase in IL-6, CCL20 and CXCL1 expression, important mediators in the recruitiment of IL-17 producing T lymphocytes and neutrophils. Besides that, during 4T-1 tumor growth we observed high expression of cyclooxygenase 2 (Cox-2) compared to 67RN tumor. However A2A deficient mice showed a significative reduction in Cox-2 expression in tumoral microenvironment compared to BALB/c mice. Cox-2 inhibition with indometacine or celecoxib (selective inhibitor) in mice with 4T-1 tumor prevented primary tumor growth and, consequently, resulted in reduction of the expression of molecules related to the Th17 profile, as IL-6, CCL20, IL-17A and Ror?t. These results indicate that the blockade of the A2A signaling pathway interfere on the induction of Th17 cells response, opening new perspectives for the development of alternative therapies to the control of invasive tumors

Adenosina e óxido nítrico, importantes neuromoduladores endógenos, atuam modulando finamente o controle neural cardiovascular no núcleo de trato solitário (NTS). Embora se tenha conhecimento sobre a relação entre adenosina e NO periférica e centralmente, em particular, no bulbo, os mecanismos pelos quais a adenosina interfere na dinâmica da neurotransmissão nitrérgica, ainda não são totalmente conhecidos. Logo, alterações na interação entre esses sistemas podem ser especialmente relevantes para indivíduos predispostos à hipertensão. Dessa forma, os objetivos do presente estudo foram estudar a interação entre o sistema adenosinérgico e nitrérgico em culturas de células da porção dorsomedial do bulbo de ratos normotenso Wistar Kyoto (WKY) e espontaneamente hipertensos (SHR). Para tal, utilizou-se técnicas para quantificação dos níveis de nitrito, PCR em tempo real e RNA de interferência. Foi observada uma redução e um aumento concentração-dependente nos níveis de nitrito e do mRNA da nNOS induzido pelos agonistas dos receptores A1(A1R) e A2A(A>sub>2AR), CPA e CGS21680, respectivamente. Os efeitos nos níveis de nitrito foram atenuados pela administração dos antagonistas seletivos dos A1R e A2AR, CPT e ZM241385. Knockdown dos A1R e A2AR mostraram que a redução da expressão desses receptores aumentaram e diminuíram os níveis de expressão da nNOS, respectivamente. Pré-tratamento com o inibidor não seletivo da nNOS, L-NAME, aboliu os níveis aumentados de nitrito desencadeados pelo CGS21680 em células de WKY e SHR. Por fim, é mostrado que a via cAMP-PKA está envolvida na sinalização que deflaga tantos os níveis reduzidos de nitrito, via A1R, quantos os níveis aumentados de nitrito, via A2AR, em culturas de WKY e SHR. Em síntese, nossos resultados destacam a influência da adenosina sobre a síntese de NO em culturas de células da porção dorsomedial do bulbo de ratos WKY e SHR. Pelo menos em parte, o perfil modulatório é diferenciado em ratos SHR / Adenosine and nitric oxide, important endogenous neuromodulators, act on the fine tuning regulation of neural cardiovascular control in the nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS). Although the relationship between adenosine and NO peripheral and centrally, is well established, in particular, in the oblongata medulla, the mechanisms by which adenosine interferes in the dynamics of nitrergic neurotransmission, is not completely understood. Thus, changes in the interaction between these systems may be especially relevant for individuals predisposed to hypertension. The aim of this study was to evaluate the interaction between the adenosinergic and nitrergic systems in cell culture from the dorsomedial medulla oblongata of Wistar Kyoto (WKY) and spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR). This purpose was performed the quantification of nitrite level, RT-PCR analysis and RNA interference. We observed a concentration-dependent decrease and increase of nitrite and nNOS mRNA levels in cultured cells of WKY and SHR rats induced by agonists of adenosine A1 (A1R) and A2A receptor (A2AR), CPA and CGS21680, respectively. These effects in nitrite level were attenuated by the administration of the A1R and A2AR selective antagonist, CPT and ZM241385. Furthermore, knockdown of A1R and A2AR showed an increase and decrease of nNOS mRNA levels, respectively. The pretreatment with nonselective inhibitor of NOS, L-NAME, abolished nitrite-increased levels triggered by CGS 21680 in WKY and SHR cells. Finally, it is shown that the cAMP-PKA pathway is involved in A1R and A2AR -mediated decrease and increase in nitrite levels in SHR and WKY cells. In summary, our results highlight the influence of adenosine on nitric oxide levels in cultured cells from dorsal medulla oblongata of WKY and SHR rats. In part, the modulatory profile is different in the SHR strain

Background and rationale - Parkinson’s disease is a neurodegenerative disorder characterised by reduced levels of dopamine in the brain. The cause of Parkinson's disease is still unknown; however several theories pertaining to the etiology exist. Current treatment mainly aims at dopamine replacement, with agents such as levodopa and dopamine agonists that provide patients with symptomatic relief. This relief is unfortunately only temporary as the progression of the disease is not halted. Furthermore, these therapies are associated with a range of side effects and novel approaches to the treatment are thus urgently required. Adenosine A2A receptor antagonists recently emerged as a promising non-dopaminergic alternative, not only as symptomatic treatment, but also as potential neuroprotective therapy. Adenosine A2A receptors are co-localised with dopamine D2 receptors in the striatum and other nuclei of the basal ganglia. Adenosine A2A stimulation decreases the affinity of dopamine for the D2 receptor, and increase cyclic AMP (cAMP) levels. The stimulation of dopamine D2 receptors, in contrast, decreases cAMP levels and therefore these receptors (A2A and D2), act in an opposing manner. Adenosine A2A antagonism will thus have similar effects as dopamine D2 agonism and will reduce the postsynaptic effects of dopamine depletion to give symptomatic relief. There are also several mechanisms where by adenosine A2A antagonists may be neuroprotective, for example by preventing glutamate excitotoxicity, that may cause damage to dopaminergic neurons. A number of adenosine A2A antagonists have already reached clinical trials and promising results were obtained, especially when combined with levodopa. Consequently, A2A antagonists are realistic prospects that have therapeutic potential in diseases with dopaminergic hypofunction, like Parkinson's disease. Many of the current A2A antagonists contain an amino-substituted heterocyclic scaffold, such as an aminopyrimidine. The primary aim of this study was the design, synthesis and evaluation of 2-aminopyrimidine derivatives as adenosine A2A receptor antagonists. Monoamine oxidase B (MAO-B) inhibitors are also promising candidates for the symptomatic treatment of Parkinson's disease, since MAO-B is the enzyme primarily responsible for the catabolism of dopamine in the brain. Irreversible inhibitors of MAO-B, such as selegeline and rasagiline, have been used clinically for the treatment of Parkinson's disease. This type of inhibition comes with certain disadvantages as it may take up to several weeks after termination of treatment for the enzyme activity to recover. Reversible inhibitors in contrast will have much better safety profiles seeing that they will not inactivate the enzyme permanently and allow for competition with the substrate. When dopamine is oxidized by MAO, toxic metabolic by-products, such as hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) forms, and this is believed to be a possible cause of Parkinson's disease. MAO-B inhibitors will therefore not only provide symptomatic relief but may also alter the progression of the disease by preventing the formation of these byproducts. Promising MAOB inhibitory activities have been reported for chalcones, and since the intermediates obtained in the synthesis of aminopyrimidines in this study are chalcones, a secondary aim of this study was the screening of selected chalcone intermediates as inhibitors of MAO–B. Results - Design and synthesis: A series of 2-aminopyrimidines were designed using known active structures and literature pharmacophores. A molecular modelling study (Discovery Studio 3.1, Accelrys) was further done to investigate the feasibility of these compounds as potential adenosine A2A antagonists. All of the designed aminopyrimidines were successfully docked in the binding site of the adenosine A2A receptor. Binding orientations and observed interactions with important residues in the active site were similar to those observed for known A2A antagonists. It was therefore concluded that these compounds may be potential A2A antagonists and the designed compounds were thus synthesised. Structures were primarily confirmed with nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and mass spectrometry. MAO-B inhibition studies: Selected chalcones were evaluated using a fluorometric assay and kynuramine as substrate. The compounds were potent and selective inhibitors of the MAO-B enzyme with IC50 values ranging between 0.49-7.67 μM. (2E)-3-(3-Chlorophenyl)-1- (5-methyl-2-furyl)prop-2-en-1-one (1c) was the most potent compound with an IC50 value of 0.49 μM and was approximately 60 times more selective towards MAO-B than MAO-A. Some preliminary structure activity relationships were derived, for example, phenyl substitution with an electron withdrawing chlorine group generally resulted in better activity than substitution with electron donating methoxy groups. Further investigation of structure activity relationships are however required as a very small series of chalcones were screened. Reversibility studies and mode of inhibition: A dilution assay was used to determine whether compound (1c) binds reversibly or irreversibly to the MAO-B enzyme. This was done by measuring the recovery of enzymatic activity after a large dilution of the enzyme-inhibitor complex. The results from the reversibility studies showed that the inhibition of the most potent compound (1c) is reversible as the catalytic activities are recovered to approximately 80% and 50% respectively, compared to the control measured in the absence of an inhibitor. For the mode of inhibition, sets of Lineweaver–Burk plots were constructed. The Lineweaver- Burk plots intersected on the y-axis which indicates that compound 1c is a competitive inhibitor of the MAO-B enzyme. In vitro adenosine A2A assays: Radioligand binding assays were used to determine the affinity of the synthesised 2-aminopyrimidines for the adenosine A2A receptor. This assay was performed with the radioligand [3H]NECA in the presence of N6-cyclopentyladenosine (CPA). Compounds 2a - 2h showed moderate to weak affinity in the assay, while promising affinities were observed for compounds 2j - 2n, which all exhibited Ki values below 55 nM. The compound with the highest affinity was 4-(5-methylfuran-2-yl)-6-[3-(piperidine-1- carbonyl)phenyl]pyrimidin-2-amine (2m) with a Ki value of 5.76 nM, which is comparable to the Ki value of 2.10 nM obtained for the known amino-substituted heterocyclic adenosine A2A antagonist, ZM 241385. The higher affinities of compounds (2j – 2n) could, at least in part, be explained by the molecular modellling studies. In the docking experiments an additional hydrogen bond interaction was observed between the amide carbonyl and tyrosine 271 indicating that this structural feature is a major contributing factor to the improved affinity observed for these derivatives. In vivo adenosine A2A assays: The haloperidol induced catalepsy assay was used to determine whether the two compounds with the highest affinity for the adenosine A2A receptor (2m and 2k) are antagonists of the A2A receptor. These compounds caused a statistically significant reduction in catalepsy, which clearly illustrate that they are adenosine A2A antagonists. The objectives of this study as set out were thus successfully realised and promising results were obtained. During this study, several novel 2-aminopyrimidines and chalcones were synthesised, and the respective adenosine A2A antagonistic and monoamine oxidase inhibitory activities for all of the screened compounds were determined for the first time. / Thesis (MSc (Pharmaceutical Chemistry))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2013

Background and rationale - Parkinson’s disease is a neurodegenerative disorder characterised by reduced levels of dopamine in the brain. The cause of Parkinson's disease is still unknown; however several theories pertaining to the etiology exist. Current treatment mainly aims at dopamine replacement, with agents such as levodopa and dopamine agonists that provide patients with symptomatic relief. This relief is unfortunately only temporary as the progression of the disease is not halted. Furthermore, these therapies are associated with a range of side effects and novel approaches to the treatment are thus urgently required. Adenosine A2A receptor antagonists recently emerged as a promising non-dopaminergic alternative, not only as symptomatic treatment, but also as potential neuroprotective therapy. Adenosine A2A receptors are co-localised with dopamine D2 receptors in the striatum and other nuclei of the basal ganglia. Adenosine A2A stimulation decreases the affinity of dopamine for the D2 receptor, and increase cyclic AMP (cAMP) levels. The stimulation of dopamine D2 receptors, in contrast, decreases cAMP levels and therefore these receptors (A2A and D2), act in an opposing manner. Adenosine A2A antagonism will thus have similar effects as dopamine D2 agonism and will reduce the postsynaptic effects of dopamine depletion to give symptomatic relief. There are also several mechanisms where by adenosine A2A antagonists may be neuroprotective, for example by preventing glutamate excitotoxicity, that may cause damage to dopaminergic neurons. A number of adenosine A2A antagonists have already reached clinical trials and promising results were obtained, especially when combined with levodopa. Consequently, A2A antagonists are realistic prospects that have therapeutic potential in diseases with dopaminergic hypofunction, like Parkinson's disease. Many of the current A2A antagonists contain an amino-substituted heterocyclic scaffold, such as an aminopyrimidine. The primary aim of this study was the design, synthesis and evaluation of 2-aminopyrimidine derivatives as adenosine A2A receptor antagonists. Monoamine oxidase B (MAO-B) inhibitors are also promising candidates for the symptomatic treatment of Parkinson's disease, since MAO-B is the enzyme primarily responsible for the catabolism of dopamine in the brain. Irreversible inhibitors of MAO-B, such as selegeline and rasagiline, have been used clinically for the treatment of Parkinson's disease. This type of inhibition comes with certain disadvantages as it may take up to several weeks after termination of treatment for the enzyme activity to recover. Reversible inhibitors in contrast will have much better safety profiles seeing that they will not inactivate the enzyme permanently and allow for competition with the substrate. When dopamine is oxidized by MAO, toxic metabolic by-products, such as hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) forms, and this is believed to be a possible cause of Parkinson's disease. MAO-B inhibitors will therefore not only provide symptomatic relief but may also alter the progression of the disease by preventing the formation of these byproducts. Promising MAOB inhibitory activities have been reported for chalcones, and since the intermediates obtained in the synthesis of aminopyrimidines in this study are chalcones, a secondary aim of this study was the screening of selected chalcone intermediates as inhibitors of MAO–B. Results - Design and synthesis: A series of 2-aminopyrimidines were designed using known active structures and literature pharmacophores. A molecular modelling study (Discovery Studio 3.1, Accelrys) was further done to investigate the feasibility of these compounds as potential adenosine A2A antagonists. All of the designed aminopyrimidines were successfully docked in the binding site of the adenosine A2A receptor. Binding orientations and observed interactions with important residues in the active site were similar to those observed for known A2A antagonists. It was therefore concluded that these compounds may be potential A2A antagonists and the designed compounds were thus synthesised. Structures were primarily confirmed with nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and mass spectrometry. MAO-B inhibition studies: Selected chalcones were evaluated using a fluorometric assay and kynuramine as substrate. The compounds were potent and selective inhibitors of the MAO-B enzyme with IC50 values ranging between 0.49-7.67 μM. (2E)-3-(3-Chlorophenyl)-1- (5-methyl-2-furyl)prop-2-en-1-one (1c) was the most potent compound with an IC50 value of 0.49 μM and was approximately 60 times more selective towards MAO-B than MAO-A. Some preliminary structure activity relationships were derived, for example, phenyl substitution with an electron withdrawing chlorine group generally resulted in better activity than substitution with electron donating methoxy groups. Further investigation of structure activity relationships are however required as a very small series of chalcones were screened. Reversibility studies and mode of inhibition: A dilution assay was used to determine whether compound (1c) binds reversibly or irreversibly to the MAO-B enzyme. This was done by measuring the recovery of enzymatic activity after a large dilution of the enzyme-inhibitor complex. The results from the reversibility studies showed that the inhibition of the most potent compound (1c) is reversible as the catalytic activities are recovered to approximately 80% and 50% respectively, compared to the control measured in the absence of an inhibitor. For the mode of inhibition, sets of Lineweaver–Burk plots were constructed. The Lineweaver- Burk plots intersected on the y-axis which indicates that compound 1c is a competitive inhibitor of the MAO-B enzyme. In vitro adenosine A2A assays: Radioligand binding assays were used to determine the affinity of the synthesised 2-aminopyrimidines for the adenosine A2A receptor. This assay was performed with the radioligand [3H]NECA in the presence of N6-cyclopentyladenosine (CPA). Compounds 2a - 2h showed moderate to weak affinity in the assay, while promising affinities were observed for compounds 2j - 2n, which all exhibited Ki values below 55 nM. The compound with the highest affinity was 4-(5-methylfuran-2-yl)-6-[3-(piperidine-1- carbonyl)phenyl]pyrimidin-2-amine (2m) with a Ki value of 5.76 nM, which is comparable to the Ki value of 2.10 nM obtained for the known amino-substituted heterocyclic adenosine A2A antagonist, ZM 241385. The higher affinities of compounds (2j – 2n) could, at least in part, be explained by the molecular modellling studies. In the docking experiments an additional hydrogen bond interaction was observed between the amide carbonyl and tyrosine 271 indicating that this structural feature is a major contributing factor to the improved affinity observed for these derivatives. In vivo adenosine A2A assays: The haloperidol induced catalepsy assay was used to determine whether the two compounds with the highest affinity for the adenosine A2A receptor (2m and 2k) are antagonists of the A2A receptor. These compounds caused a statistically significant reduction in catalepsy, which clearly illustrate that they are adenosine A2A antagonists. The objectives of this study as set out were thus successfully realised and promising results were obtained. During this study, several novel 2-aminopyrimidines and chalcones were synthesised, and the respective adenosine A2A antagonistic and monoamine oxidase inhibitory activities for all of the screened compounds were determined for the first time. / Thesis (MSc (Pharmaceutical Chemistry))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2013

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Virginia, 2008. / In title: [A] is subscript upper case A; [B] is subscript upper case B. Includes bibliographical references. Also available online through Digital Dissertations.

O câncer de mama é um dos tumores malignos mais comuns e que afeta um grande número de mulheres da população mundial. O processo inflamatório gerado juntamente com o crescimento descontrolado das células tumorais promove um estresse metabólico no microambiente tumoral levando ao acúmulo de adenosina extracelular decorrente da hipóxia tecidual. A adenosina gerada e seus efeitos mediados via receptor A2A (A2AR) interfere em vários subtipos celulares. Neste trabalho, avaliamos o papel do receptor A2A na indução de uma resposta de células Th17 durante o carcinoma mamário experimental, visto que estas desempenham um importante papel no crescimento e na progressão do tumor de mama invasivo. Para isso, utilizamos o modelo de carcinoma mamário murino que desenvolve (4T-1) e o que não desenvolve metástase (67NR). Nossos resultados mostraram que o tumor mamário 4T-1 apresenta alta expressão do receptor A2A comparado com o tumor 67NR. A deficiência do receptor A2a preveniu o crescimento do tumor mamário 4T- 1 e de colônias de células tumorais em sítios secundários da doença, concomitante com a diminuição da resposta de perfil Th17 e do recrutamento de neutrófilos para o sitio primário. Ainda, que as células tumorais 4T-1 apresentaram uma alta expressão dos receptores de adenosina e das ectonucleotidases (CD73 e CD39), sugerindo que a via de sinalização de adenosina exerce um efeito direto nessas células. A administração de adenosina ou AMP (trifosfato de adenosina) em culturas de células tumorais 4T-1 induziu xvi um aumento da expressão de IL-6, CCL20 e CXCL1, mediadores importantes para o recrutamento de linfócitos T produtores de IL-17 e de neutrófilos. Além disso, durante o crescimento do tumor 4T-1, observamos uma alta expressão da enzima ciclooxigenase 2 (Cox-2) comparado com o tumor 67NR. No entanto, os animais deficientes geneticamente do receptor A2A apresentaram uma redução significativa da expressão de Cox-2 no microambiente tumoral comparados com os animais BALB/c. A inibição da enzima Cox-2 com indometacina ou celecoxicib (inibidor seletivo) em animais com tumor 4T-1 preveniu o crescimento do tumor primário e, consequentemente, resultou na redução da expressão de moléculas relacionadas como o perfil de resposta de células Th17 tais como IL-6, CCL20, IL-17A e Ror?t. Esses resultados indicam que o bloqueio da via de sinalização do receptor A2A interfere na indução de resposta de células Th17, abrindo novas perspectivas para o desenvolvimento de terapias alternativas para o controle de tumores invasivos / Breast cancer is one of the most common and aggressive malignant tumors, affecting a large number of women in the worldwide population. The inflammatory process generated along with the uncontrolled growth of tumor cells promotes metabolic stress in the tumor microenvironment leading to the accumulation of extracellular adenosine due to the generation of tissue hypoxia. The generated adenosine and its effects mediated by A2A (A2AR) interfere in several cell subtypes. In this study, we evaluated the role of A2A receptor in the induction of a Th17 cell response in experimental breast carcinoma, given that these cells play an important role in invasive breast tumor growth and progression. For this, we employed the murine mammary metastatic (4T-1) and nonmetastatic carcinoma (67NR) model. Our results showed that there is high expression of adenosine A2A receptor in breast tumor 4T-1 compared to 67NR. The A2AR deficiency prevented the growth of metastatic breast tumor 4T-1 and tumor cell colonies in secondary disease sites, together with a decrease in Th17 response profile and in the neutrophils recruitment to the primary site. The tumor cells 4T-1 presented high expression of adenosine receptors and ectonucleotidases (CD73 and CD39), suggesting that the adenosine signaling pathway has a direct effect on these cells. Adenosine or AMP (adenosine triphosphate) administration in tumoral 4T-1 cell cultures induced an increase in IL-6, CCL20 and CXCL1 expression, important mediators in the recruitiment of IL-17 producing T lymphocytes and neutrophils. Besides that, during 4T-1 tumor growth we observed high expression of cyclooxygenase 2 (Cox-2) compared to 67RN tumor. However A2A deficient mice showed a significative reduction in Cox-2 expression in tumoral microenvironment compared to BALB/c mice. Cox-2 inhibition with indometacine or celecoxib (selective inhibitor) in mice with 4T-1 tumor prevented primary tumor growth and, consequently, resulted in reduction of the expression of molecules related to the Th17 profile, as IL-6, CCL20, IL-17A and Ror?t. These results indicate that the blockade of the A2A signaling pathway interfere on the induction of Th17 cells response, opening new perspectives for the development of alternative therapies to the control of invasive tumors

Adenosina e óxido nítrico, importantes neuromoduladores endógenos, atuam modulando finamente o controle neural cardiovascular no núcleo de trato solitário (NTS). Embora se tenha conhecimento sobre a relação entre adenosina e NO periférica e centralmente, em particular, no bulbo, os mecanismos pelos quais a adenosina interfere na dinâmica da neurotransmissão nitrérgica, ainda não são totalmente conhecidos. Logo, alterações na interação entre esses sistemas podem ser especialmente relevantes para indivíduos predispostos à hipertensão. Dessa forma, os objetivos do presente estudo foram estudar a interação entre o sistema adenosinérgico e nitrérgico em culturas de células da porção dorsomedial do bulbo de ratos normotenso Wistar Kyoto (WKY) e espontaneamente hipertensos (SHR). Para tal, utilizou-se técnicas para quantificação dos níveis de nitrito, PCR em tempo real e RNA de interferência. Foi observada uma redução e um aumento concentração-dependente nos níveis de nitrito e do mRNA da nNOS induzido pelos agonistas dos receptores A1(A1R) e A2A(A>sub>2AR), CPA e CGS21680, respectivamente. Os efeitos nos níveis de nitrito foram atenuados pela administração dos antagonistas seletivos dos A1R e A2AR, CPT e ZM241385. Knockdown dos A1R e A2AR mostraram que a redução da expressão desses receptores aumentaram e diminuíram os níveis de expressão da nNOS, respectivamente. Pré-tratamento com o inibidor não seletivo da nNOS, L-NAME, aboliu os níveis aumentados de nitrito desencadeados pelo CGS21680 em células de WKY e SHR. Por fim, é mostrado que a via cAMP-PKA está envolvida na sinalização que deflaga tantos os níveis reduzidos de nitrito, via A1R, quantos os níveis aumentados de nitrito, via A2AR, em culturas de WKY e SHR. Em síntese, nossos resultados destacam a influência da adenosina sobre a síntese de NO em culturas de células da porção dorsomedial do bulbo de ratos WKY e SHR. Pelo menos em parte, o perfil modulatório é diferenciado em ratos SHR / Adenosine and nitric oxide, important endogenous neuromodulators, act on the fine tuning regulation of neural cardiovascular control in the nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS). Although the relationship between adenosine and NO peripheral and centrally, is well established, in particular, in the oblongata medulla, the mechanisms by which adenosine interferes in the dynamics of nitrergic neurotransmission, is not completely understood. Thus, changes in the interaction between these systems may be especially relevant for individuals predisposed to hypertension. The aim of this study was to evaluate the interaction between the adenosinergic and nitrergic systems in cell culture from the dorsomedial medulla oblongata of Wistar Kyoto (WKY) and spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR). This purpose was performed the quantification of nitrite level, RT-PCR analysis and RNA interference. We observed a concentration-dependent decrease and increase of nitrite and nNOS mRNA levels in cultured cells of WKY and SHR rats induced by agonists of adenosine A1 (A1R) and A2A receptor (A2AR), CPA and CGS21680, respectively. These effects in nitrite level were attenuated by the administration of the A1R and A2AR selective antagonist, CPT and ZM241385. Furthermore, knockdown of A1R and A2AR showed an increase and decrease of nNOS mRNA levels, respectively. The pretreatment with nonselective inhibitor of NOS, L-NAME, abolished nitrite-increased levels triggered by CGS 21680 in WKY and SHR cells. Finally, it is shown that the cAMP-PKA pathway is involved in A1R and A2AR -mediated decrease and increase in nitrite levels in SHR and WKY cells. In summary, our results highlight the influence of adenosine on nitric oxide levels in cultured cells from dorsal medulla oblongata of WKY and SHR rats. In part, the modulatory profile is different in the SHR strain

Vi kan se att mikroproduktion av el ökar i dagens samhället och att detta leder till att relationen mellan elhandelsbolaget och kunden förändras, när kunden övergår från att enbart köpa el till att också producera och sälja el tillbaka till elhandelsbolaget. För elhandelsbolaget uppstår då en ny marknadssituation att ta hänsyn till och vi finner detta intressant att studera då antalet mikroproducenter förväntas öka även framöver. Vidare visar mikroproducenter en högre kunskap kring el än den vanlige elhandelskunden och ställer därmed andra krav på elhandelsbolagen. Vårt huvudsakliga forskningsområde kundengagemang är ännu relativt begränsat utforskat empiriskt, och utgörs främst av konceptuella studier. Forskarna är överens om att kundengagemang är en viktig del av relationen och lojaliteten som kunden upplever gentemot ett företag och dess varor. Med vår studie undersöker hur kundengagemang hos mikroproducenter gentemot sitt elhandelsbolag kan ha en inverkan på relationen och lojaliteten som finns mellan aktörerna. Vi ser således på kundengagemang, relationer och lojalitet i en kontext där båda aktörerna bidrar till värdeskapandet och kan sägas både ger och tar i processen. Detta ger vår studie ett A2A-perspektiv. Eftersom detta inte tidigare applicerats på studier om kundengagemang, relationer och lojalitet gör det vår forskning unik. Med utgångspunkt i teorier om kundengagemang, relationer, lojalitet och A2A har vi skapat en intervjuguide för att undersöka hur mikroproducenter uppvisar kundengagemang och lojalitet i relationen till sina elhandelsbolag. Den empiriska studien genomfördes med semistrukturerade intervjuer med mikroproducenter som genom strategiskt urval och snöbollsurval valts ut för att representera gruppen mikroproducenter. Den empiriska datan har delats upp i teman från intervjuerna och dessa har analyserats utifrån de aspekter som framhävts i empirin. Resultatet visar att mikroproducenter upplever att de har ökad kunskap kring el sedan de blev mikroproducenter och att el för dem har gått från att vara en lågintresseprodukt till en högintresseprodukt. De mikroproducenter som uppvisar hög nivå av engagemang till sitt elhandelsbolag är de kunder vars interaktion till företaget har genererat dem värde, främst i form av bra bemötande från elhandelsbolaget. Vad som tydligt efterfrågas hos de mikroproducenter vi talat med är att elhandelsbolaget ska bidra med kunskap kring mikroproduktion. Överlag kan vi se att mikroproducenterna kräver mer uppmärksamhet av elhandelsbolaget nu än vad de gjort som endast elhandelskund och att detta har en inverkan på relationen och lojaliteten mellan aktörerna.