Thesis (MPhil)--Stellenbosch University, 2011. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Background: Globally the percentage of women living with HIV is high. They constitute 48% of people living with HIV. The purpose of the study was to investigate the influence of specific factors known to make women vulnerable to HIV/AIDS infection. Objective: The specific factors investigated were cultural beliefs, economic dependence and sexual abuse and their affect (if any) on women in Bela-Bela (Warmbaths) in the Limpopo province of South Africa. The population of 30 women who attend HIV/AIDS support groups in the area was targeted. Twenty respondents were asked to complete questionnaires. A convenience sampling method was used. Research Design: A descriptive research design was used, with data collected through questionnaires. The questionnaire was structured in English and for those who did not understand the language; the questions were explained in their own language. Data was collected on six occasions. The number of participants interviewed per session varied as it depended on the availability of participants on those days. Results: Though the sample used was small which makes it is difficult to draw definite conclusions, the results revealed that women in the area are vulnerable to HIV because of factors such as cultural beliefs (in particular the value of marriage and children), economic dependence and sexual abuse. Conclusion and Recommendation: Findings in this study indicate that unemployment may put women in unfavourable economic position and force them into vulnerable behaviour such as having unsafe sex and sex for money. Findings further revealed that the value of children is put in high regard by the respondents. Having children is seen as a way of proving to the community that they are fertile. This may put women at risk of HIV as they are engaging in unprotected sex. The results show that many women are still exposed to forced sex. There is a need for further research in this regard. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Agtergrond: Die aantal vroue wat wêreldwyd MIV onderlede het, beloop’n geskatte 48% van alle mense wat met die siekte saamleef. Hierdie studie ondersoek spesifieke faktore wat bekend daarvoor is om vroue kwesbaar te maak vir die virus. Doelstelling: Die spesifieke faktore wat ondersoek word is kulturele oortuigings, ekonomiese afhanklikheid en seksuele misbruik en die invloed daarvan (indien enigsins) onder vroue van Bela Bela in die Limpopo Provinsie van Suid Afrika. ‘n Groep van 30 vroue wat MIV/Vigs onderlede het en aan ondersteuningsgroepe in die area behoort, is geteiken vir die studie. Twintig respondente het vraelyste ingevul. Navorsingsontwerp: ‘n Beskrywende navorsingontwerp is gebruik, met data wat versamel is deur middel van vraelyste. Die vraelyste was in Engels en vir diegene wat nie die taal verstaan het nie, is dit in hul eie taal verduidelik. Data is op ses geleenthede bymekaar gemaak. Die getal deelnemers wat deelgeneem het per sessie het afgehang van die beskikbaarheid van deelnemers op die verskillende dae. Uitslae: Alhoewel die steekproef klein was wat dit bemoeilik het om defnitiewe afleidings te maak, het die uitslae gewys dat vroue in die area kwesbaar is vir MIV as gevolg van die spesifieke faktore wat ondersoek is, veral kulturele oortuigings (spesifiek oor die huwelik en geboorte). Gevolgtrekkings en Aanbevelings: Resultate in die studie het gewys dat onstabiele ekonomiese omstandighede soos werkloosheid vroue in ‘n ongunstige posisie plaas en hulle moontlik dwing om onbeskermde seks of seks vir geld te hê. Die bevindinge het ook onthul dat om kinders te hê hooggeag word deur die deelnemers in die studie aangesien dit gesien word as ‘n simbool van vrugbaarheid. Dit beteken dus hulle het onbeskermde seks en moontlike blootstelling aan MIV. Die uitslae wys verder dat baie vroue nog blootgestel word aan seks wat op hul afgedwing word. Daar is ‘n behoefte vir verdere navorsing in hierdie verband.

HIV and AIDS have historically been associated with homosexuality and promiscuity (especially among blacks), evoking blame and stigma. The implication of sex in the spread of HIV and AIDS complicates matters as traditional ideas of pollution and contamination are evoked. These attitudes translate into a lack of support for people infected with and affected by HIV and AIDS. Moreover, such attitudes result in the stigmatisation of those people, leaving them with a poor self-image. Stigmatisation also leads to secrecy and non-disclosure of the disease allowing it to spread rapidly. This thesis deals with the issue of stigmatisation due to HIV and AIDS, looking specifically at the two congregations of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Southern Africa (ELCSA) in KwaZulu-Natal province. / Thesis (M.Th.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2007.

Women in the Mutima Church in Zambia have for some years had the highest HIV rate in the church, but because this is one of the African Indigenous Churches (AICs), not much is known about the behavioural and other risk factors that predispose these women to the virus. One of the reasons is that some members of the Mutima Church cannot make their own decisions when getting married. The church founder makes marital decisions for some of the church members. This problem raises serious questions for HIV health practitioners, activists and some of the church members. Informed by some of the Mutima Church members that HIV testing in their church is not considered a norm, this dissertation demonstrates theological teachings on polygamy and HIV and Aids employed by the church founder. In this dissertation, some church members from the Mutima Church were asked to describe and explain what polygamy and HIV and Aids meant to them and how they theologically perceived and understood them. While the major results indicate that polygamy in the Mutima Church contributes to the spread of HIV and Aids, the other new research findings are that the Mutima Church members' theological understanding on polygamy is that it is a blessing from God; and that HIV and Aids is a punishment from God. These responses are analysed and discussed in this dissertation. / Thesis (M.Th.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2007.

This dissertation brings into perspective the plight of AIDS widows in Kisumu. Often widowhood in general focuses on the older women, while AIDS has created a generation of young widows. A high percentage of these widows are immediately pushed into poverty by the death of husbands. AIDS widows' poverty and vulnerability to external shocks and stresses increases dramatically, while the delicate process of juggling competing needs and pressures becomes a far greater challenge. The range of forces against which widows in Kisumu must struggle is formidable: low self-esteem, complex family relationships, hostile or indifferent communities, systemic gender discrimination and harassment, property loss, unemployment or underemployment, lack of education and a daily grind that leaves widows with scant energy to contemplate the possibility of transforming and regaining their dignity/condition. For these reasons this dissertation contends that the church has an obligation to strategise a holistic intervention to care for these widows who are part of the church and society. This dissertation manifests an on going struggle and quest for adequate instruments to understand AIDS widows in the light of God's promise of the fullness of life to all. AIDS leads to severe social, psychological and financial consequences for the affected families, hence the challenging question how the widows can move from deprivation to begin self-reliant sustainable livelihood is addressed. Since widows' lives are complex and constantly changing, their livelihoods wholly depend on their identifying and building their own various strengths, assets and capabilities. In this way the dissertation suggests that the following areas should be secured overtime. Supportive relationships, networks and environments, that is relatives, the church and church organization, government and other agencies should pool and pull together with the widows. Long-term earning power and financial security is badly needed. That means that their property should be secured and their land be on their hands for continuous utilization, contrast to the current state where they are ejected and driven away of their homes. Up-to-date skills, knowledge, self-esteem, motivation, self-confidence and spiritual well being. In this area it is suggested that capacity building would play a major role in moulding their current and future life. Finally the church is challenged to cultivate an alternative theology to address the ever-growing problem of marginalization and violence against widows. That is to say all forms of prejudice, for example stereotyping, isolation and condemnation must be strongly rejected and urgent need for justice, reason and deep faith be employed. As a result the widows would be integrated and feel valued in the society and the church. / Thesis (M.Th.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2004.

African widows experience physical, emotional and spiritual traumas induced by cultural/psycho-social factors, which are further exacerbated by environmental and socioeconomic determinants. These circumstances make both the mourning process and its aftermath - coping with life after the death of their spouses - extremely difficult. Oppressive cultural practices and perceptions can aggravate or intensify the suffering for many of these women. Certain rituals expose women to possible HIV infection, and in the case of Christian widows, are also incompatible with their faith. Compounding this is the cultural stigma attached to widowhood, and the added possibility of the AIDS stigma whether or not her husband did indeed die of HIV and AIDS. This dissertation examines the experiences of Christian widows from multicultural and multi ethnic backgrounds and proposes the way in which the Church can respond, given a context of African cultural practices and HIV prevention initiatives. It responds to the question of the implications of the transition into and the state of widowhood in the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Zambia. This is a church operating in an environment where African cultural practices are esteemed, and some widowhood cultural practices have turned out to be risky in a context of HIV and AIDS. Chapter 1 introduces the study giving the background to and motivation for the study. It discuses the feminization of HIV and AIDS in Zambia, and that situation in the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Zambia which gave the impetus to undertake the study. It also elaborates on the methodology used to conduct this research. Chapter 2 reviews the literature on related research that has already been done on widowhood, showing the reason to study a subject that has received so much attention. It also shows how strands of African Christianity have contextualized the gospel in Africa. Chapter 3 describes Lutheran theology on widowhood and the theology that Lutheranism has developed from Luther's views on widowhood. Chapter 4 describes the methods used in collecting data from the sampled interviewees and informants. Chapter 5 presents the results of the research and these are interpreted in Chapter 6. Chapter 7 presents a proposed Christianized cleansing ritual, giving justification and the procedure for the ritual. / Thesis (M.Th.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2007.

Power imbalances and gender-based violence (GBV) have increasingly been cited as important determinants putting women at risk of HIV infections. Studies have shown that globally one in every three women has been beaten, coerced into sex or otherwise abused in her lifetime. The study explored working women’s perceptions of power, gender-based violence and HIV-infection risks. A qualitative, explorative study was conducted among female employees in an airline business in Namibia. Five women participated in in-depth, face-to-face interviews. The findings show that all of the participants experienced power imbalances and GBV in their intimate relationships. All of the women reported emotional or psychological abuse, whilst the majority were subjected to economic abuse, followed by physical abuse, and two alleged having been sexually abused. The study concludes with specific recommendations for the development and successful implementation of workplace policy and programmes to protect and promote women’s rights. / Social Work / M.A. (Social Behaviour Studies in HIV/AIDS)

The purpose of the study was to determine the factors that predict women’s risky sexual behaviour and HIV and AIDS knowledge. A quasi-experimental, pre-test-post-test research design, with a non-equivalent comparison group was conducted to determine if there was an association between young women’s sexual behaviour and HIV/AIDS knowledge on aspects of HIV/AIDS transmission and prevention and behaviour change. The study used both quantitative and qualitative approach. Data collection was done using semi-structured interview schedule and focus group discussion guide. The respondents who participated in the study were women between the ages of 15-25 years. Two groups of respondents participated in the study. Women in the quasi-experimental site (N=200) who received the intervention and women in the control site (N=200) who did not receive any intervention. Quantitative data were analysed with the help of a statistician and the Epi Info statistical package was used. Qualitative data obtained from the focus group discussion were analysed using Tesch’s method of analysis. The major inferences drawn from this study are that young women lack knowledge relating to HIV/AIDS and that some young women were engaged in risky sexual behaviours such as having multiple sexual partners and having unprotected sex. The study indicates that peer education strategy has the potential to make an impact on these young women. It has also shown that peer education can play an important role in increasing knowledge and reducing risky sexual behaviour. / Health Studies / D. Litt. et Phil. (Health Studies)

Maternal HIV-infection is considered to be a threat to the psychosocial development of AIDS-affected children. In South Africa, AIDS-affected children may be particularly vulnerable due to the unprecedented effects of the HIV/AIDS epidemic on the breakdown of family and community resources in already disadvantaged communities. The aim of this study was to explore the contextualised experiences of two children living with mothers who have HIV by conducting two case studies. Mother-child dyads were recruited from local HIV/AIDS centres and informed consent was obtained. The mothers were in the minor symptomatic phase of HIV-infection and the children were uninfected and aged between 10 and 12 years. Through semi-structured interviewing, the mothers provided background and contextual information about the children. Play techniques were used in the child interviews to encourage the introduction and exploration of issues salient to the children. Play facilitated engagement around sensitive and potentially anxiety-provoking material. A key issue for the children was their concerns about the anticipated deaths of their mothers. The children held misconceptions about the transmission of HIV/ AIDS. They feared HIV/AIDS and expected that others would have negative perceptions of them. Family processes such as secrecy and avoidance around HIV/AIDS-related issues were understood to perpetuate the children's fears and false beliefs in a broader community context that stigmatised HIV/AIDS. It was argued that the mothers' shame over HIV-infection and their need to protect their relationship with their children compromised their ability to communicate openly with their children and to offer them meaningful emotional support. Limited parental involvement was identified as the key contextual process that engendered vulnerability in the children, as they were isolated within and beyond the family. Recommendations to address the processes that engendered vulnerability in the children are discussed.

This study focussed on determining the knowledge and understanding of Angolan women pertaining to the causes and consequences of HIV/AIDS with the aim of developing an information leaflet about HIV/AIDS for disseminating information to the vulnerable community. A quantitative approach was applied using an exploratory and descriptive design, utilising a self-developed questionnaire to collect the data, from 100 females who accompanied sick children to a specific hospital in Luanda. The findings indicated that even though the respondents were aware of certain key issues in the transmission and consequences of the HIV infection, there were many areas in which a great measure of uncertainty existed such as the causes of the disease, prevention methods, risk factors and precautions to take when living with an HIV positive person. Recommendations were made in view of enhancing the distribution of information regarding the causes and consequences of HIV and AIDS by means of different structures. / HEALTH STUDIES / MA (HEALTH STUDIES)

AIDS-related bereavement counselling programmes / The aim of this study was to determine whether there is a need for specific bereavement counselling programmes for women affected by HIV/AIDS in Indonesia, where death is believed to be fated. Six AIDS-bereaved women were recruited. Data analysis was conducted based on the women's interview transcripts and journal entries. The women experienced at least three traumatic life events. The most challenging experience was learning that they have contracted a disease they knew to be mostly associated with prostitution. Given the short lapse of time between their husbands' deaths and learning about their seropositivity, biographical disruption appeared to have acted as an "analgesic", while concerns to protect their children seemed to have triggered biographical reinforcement. This phenomenon may have brought about a positive bereavement outcome. Specific counselling programmes for women affected by HIV/AIDS are needed, but emphasis should first be placed on improving their wellbeing and their perception of stigma. / Sociology / M.A. (Sociology (Social Behaviour Studies in HIV/AIDS))