Obesity and associated metabolic disorders, e. g. metabolic syndrome, represent a considerable health threat for modern society. Due to sedentary lifestyle, high caloric intake and changes in composition of diet, prevalence of obesity is increasing worldwide. One of the possible causes contributing to higher prevalence of obesity in recent population could be the change of fatty acids (FA) composition of dietary lipids, with the shift in the content of n-6 and n-3 FA toward n-6 FA. In contrast to n-6 FA, n-3 FA are known for their anti-atherogenic, anti-obesogenic and anti-inflammatory properties. In our experiments in mice, the capability of naturally occurred and chemically modified n- 3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFA) in prevention and reversal of specific parts of metabolic syndrome was demonstrated. A specific chemical derivative of docosahexaenoic acid was proven to be very effective in preventing and improving metabolic conditions of animals exposed to high-fat (HF) diet challenge. Further, the involvement of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), a master regulator of lipid metabolism, in skeletal muscle thermogenesis induced by HF-feeding was investigated. Activation of AMPK in the HF-fed mice is most possibly caused by increased leptin levels and represents an important link...

Die Anpassung des Zellwachstums eukaryotischer und prokaryotischer Zellen an sich ändernde intra- und extrazelluläre Signale wie Nährstoffverfügbarkeit, Wachstumsfaktoren und dem zellulären Energielevel bedarf eines effektiven Regulationssystems. In Säugern übernimmt der TSC-Komplex als negativer Regulator des TOR-Signalweges eine wichtige Rolle bei der Regulation des Zellwachstums. In S. pombe ist der TSC-Komplex konserviert. Zudem existieren Homologe der Untereinheiten der AMPK, welche in Säugern den TSC-Komplex positiv regulieren. In der vorliegenden Arbeit konnte die Existenz von zwei funktionell getrennten AMPK-Komplexen nachgewiesen werden: AMPK I, bestehend aus Ssp2, SPCC1919.03c und Cbs2 und AMPK II, bestehend aus Ppk9, SPCC1919.03c und Cbs2. Genetische Daten lassen eine Beteiligung von AMPK I an der Regulation der sexuellen Differenzierung, der Adaption an osmotischen Stress und der Verwertung nicht-fermentierbarer Kohlenstoffquellen vermuten. AMPK II scheint für die Adaption an Cadmiumstress wichtig zu sein.In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde weiterhin die Beteiligung der beiden AMPK alpha-Isoformen am TSC/Rhb1/TOR-Signalweg in S. pombe näher untersucht. Dabei deutete sich an, dass Ppk9 und der TSC-Komplex weder synergistische noch antagonistische Funktionen in der Zelle ausüben. Im Gegensatz dazu scheinen Ssp2 und die TSC-Proteine antagonistische Funktionen auszuüben. Einige Wachstumsdefekte der ssp2 -Deletionsmutanten können durch eine Hyperaktivierung des TSC/Rhb1/TOR-Signalweges supprimiert werden. Die Deletion von ssp2 führt zu einer Suppression des Wachstumsdefektes von Leucin-auxotrophen tsc-Mutanten. Diese Beobachtung erlaubt die Einordnung von Ssp2 in einem zum TSC/Rhb1/TOR-Weg parallelen Signalweg. Im Gegensatz zu Säugern scheinen in S. pombe TSC/Rhb1/TORC1 und Ssp2 einen gemeinsamen Effektor unabhängig voneinander zu regulieren, um verschiedene Wachstumsbedingungen miteinander zu integrieren und das Zellwachstum entsprechend anzupassen.

Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

Cushing's syndrome and glucocorticoid therapy lead to central obesity, insulin resistance, and symptoms of altered energy regulation similar to those observed in the metabolic syndrome. We hypothesized that excess glucocorticoids alter energy sensing/signaling in skeletal muscle through mediation of the LKB1/AMPK signaling pathway. To test this hypothesis, three 100 mg pellets of corticosterone were implanted subcutaneously in each of nine rats for two weeks. Responses were compared with sham operated controls fed ad libitum or food restricted to produce the body weights similar to the treatment group rats. After the treatment period, animals were anesthetized and the right gastrocnemius-plantaris and soleus were removed for analysis. After tibial nerve stimulation for 5 min, the left gastrocnemius-plantaris and soleus were also removed. We assessed AMPK activity and subunit expression, as well as several metabolic indicators including ATP, creatine phosphate, creatine, glycogen, and malonyl-CoA levels in rested and stimulated gastrocnemius-plantaris and soleus muscles. We found that high levels of glucocorticoids decreased AMPKγ3 subunit expression in the gastrocnemius-plantaris. We also observed reduced AMPKα2 activity in the stimulated gastrocnemius-plantaris, but not the soleus; and that this decreased activity corresponded to a significant reduction in phosphorylated TBC1D1, a protein involved in signaling GLUT-4 translocation. Finally, in the gastrocnemius-plantaris, we also noted an increase in glycogen stores in the hypercorticosteronemic rats. Our data suggest that altered energy sensing/signaling associated with high levels of glucocorticoids may be due in part to inhibition of AMPKα2 activity and the high energy state produced by increased glycogen stores. We also conclude that high levels of glucocorticoids decrease the levels of AMPKγ3 and diminish insulin/contraction signaling through phosphorylated TBC1D1.

Nutrient sensing kinases sense available nutrients and regulate cell activity accordingly. Three of these enzymes are AMP regulated kinase (AMPK, or Snf1 in yeast), PAS kinase, and target of rapamycin (TOR), are conserved from yeast to man and have overlapping function. AMPK and Snf1 are important in sensing when nutrient status in the cell is low and down regulating energy consuming pathways. PAS kinase is required for glucose homeostasis in the cell, and responds to glucose levels. TOR senses nutrients such as amino acids and upregulates cell growth pathways primarily through protein synthesis. Due to the varying nature of these enzymes, cross talk is expected in order for the cell to properly regulate cellular metabolism and growth in response to energy and nutrient availability. Previous studies have shown that activation of yeast PAS kinase under nutrient stress conditions requires the presence of Snf1. The aim of this thesis is to determine whether Snf1 directly phosphorylates and activates PAS kinase through both in vivo and in vitro approaches. PAS kinase was found to require Snf1 for both activation and phosphorylation in vivo. In vitro kinase assays were also performed to confirm a direct phosphorylation event. The results from this study support the direct phosphorylation and activation of PAS kinase by Snf1, linking cellular energy status to glucose allocation.

Background: Aspirin, the pro-drug of salicylate, is associated with reduced incidence of death from cancers and is commonly prescribed in combination with metformin in individuals with type 2 diabetes. Salicylate activates the AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) via Ser108 of the AMPK β1 subunit, a mechanism that is distinct from metformin, which increases AMP:ATP. Many cancers have high rates of fatty acid synthesis and AMPK inhibits this pathway through phosphorylation of acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC). It is unknown if targeting the AMPK-ACC-lipogenic pathway using salicylate and metformin may be effective for inhibiting cancer cell survival. Results: Salicylate suppresses clonogenic survival of prostate and lung cancer cells at therapeutic concentrations of aspirin. These clinically achievable concentrations of salicylate activated AMPK per the increasing phosphorylation of ACC and suppressing the activity of mTOR effectors kinase p70-S6 kinase and S6; effects that were enhanced with the addition of metformin and blunted in mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFS) deficient in AMPK β1. MEF cells deficient in AMPK β1 were more resistant to salicylates inhibitory effect on proliferation. Supplementation of media with fatty acids and mevalonate reverses the suppressive effects on cell survival indicating the inhibition of de novo lipogenesis is likely important. Conclusions: Salicylate increases ACC phosphorylation, reduces phosphorylation of mTOR targets and inhibits de novo lipogenesis in prostate and lung cancer cells, with concentrations of salicylate achievable through the ingestion of Aspirin (0.25-1.0mM) these effects are blunted in AMPK β1 deficient cells. Effects on AMPK activity via ACC phosphorylation as well as reductions in mTOR signalling targets and de novo lipogenesis are enhanced when used in combination with metformin. Suppressive effects on prostate and lung cancer cell survival are ameliorated when media is supplemented with mevalonate and fatty acids. Pre-clinical studies evaluating the use of salicylates alone and with metformin to inhibit de novo lipogenesis and the growth of prostate and lung cancers are warranted. / Thesis / Master of Science (MSc)

The intestinal epithelium is able to adapt to varying blood flow and, thus, oxygen availability. Still, the adaptation fails under pathologic situations. A better understanding of the mechanisms underlying the epithelial adaptation to hypoxia could help to improve the therapeutic approach. We hypothesized that the short-term adaptation to hypoxia is mediated via AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and that it is coupled to the long-term adaptation by a common regulation mechanism, the HIF-hydroxylase enzymes. Further, we hypothesized the transepithelial transport of glucose to be part of this short-term adaptation. We conducted Ussing chamber studies using isolated lagomorph jejunum epithelium and cell culture experiments with CaCo-2 cells. The epithelia and cells were incubated under 100% and 21% O2, respectively, with the panhydroxylase inhibitor dimethyloxalylglycine (DMOG) or under 1% O2. We showed an activation of AMPK under hypoxia and after incubation with DMOG by Western blot. This could be related to functional effects like an impairment of Na+-coupled glucose transport. Inhibitor studies revealed a recruitment of glucose transporter 1 under hypoxia, but not after incubation with DMOG. Summing up, we showed an influence of hydroxylase enzymes on AMPK activity and similarities between hypoxia and the effects of hydroxylase inhibition on functional changes.

Yes / Recent clinical trials of the hypoglycaemic sodium-glucose co-transporter-2 (SGLT2) inhibitors, which inhibit renal glucose reabsorption, have reported beneficial cardiovascular outcomes. Whether SGLT2 inhibitors directly affect cardiovascular tissues, however, remains unclear. We have previously reported that the SGLT2 inhibitor canagliflozin activates AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) in immortalised cell lines and murine hepatocytes. As AMPK has anti-inflammatory actions in vascular cells, we examined whether SGLT2 inhibitors attenuated inflammatory signalling in cultured human endothelial cells. Incubation with clinically-relevant concentrations of canagliflozin, but not empagliflozin or dapagliflozin activated AMPK and inhibited IL-1β-stimulated adhesion of pro-monocytic U937 cells and secretion of IL-6 and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1). Inhibition of MCP-1 secretion was attenuated by expression of dominant-negative AMPK and was mimicked by the direct AMPK activator, A769662. Stimulation of cells with either canagliflozin or A769662 had no effect on IL-1β-stimulated cell surface levels of adhesion molecules or nuclear factor-κB signalling. Despite these identical effects of canagliflozin and A769662, IL-1β-stimulated IL-6/MCP-1 mRNA was inhibited by canagliflozin, but not A769662, whereas IL-1β-stimulated c-jun N-terminal kinase phosphorylation was inhibited by A769662, but not canagliflozin. These data indicate that clinically-relevant canagliflozin concentrations directly inhibit endothelial pro-inflammatory chemokine/cytokine secretion by AMPK-dependent and -independent mechanisms without affecting early IL-1β signalling. / Project Grant (PG/13/82/30483 to IPS and TMP) and PhD studentships (FS/16/55/32731 and FS/14/61/31284 to DB and AS) from the British Heart Foundation and an equipment grant (BDA11/0004309 to IPS and TMP) from Diabetes UK. OJK was supported by a Scholarship from the Iraqi Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research. TAA was supported by a Libyan Ministry of Education PhD Studentship.

La consommation d'un régime hyper protéique (HP) améliore l'homéostasie glucidique, le gain de poids, l'adiposité, en réduisant le tissus adipeux blanc et la taille des adipocytes. Les adaptations métaboliques dues à l'augmentation de l'apport protéique sont au moins caractérisées, au niveau du foie, par la diminution de la lipogenèse et l'augmentation de la conversion des acides aminés (AA) en glycogène. Cependant, le rôle des acides aminés dans le contrôle de ces adaptations métaboliques et des voies de transduction responsables de la transmission du signal " acides aminés " n'ont pas encore été élucidés. L'objectif de notre étude a été de déterminer l'effet de l'augmentation de l'apport en acides aminés sur la traduction et la protéolyse, et d'identifier les voies de signalisation impliquées dans la détection des acides aminés ainsi que l'acide aminé ou le groupe d'acide aminés responsable de ces effets, en utilisant des approches in vivo et in vitro. Les extraits protéiques ont été analysés par western blots pour examiner l'état de phosphorylation des protéines impliquées dans les voies de signalisation qui participent à la détection des AAs et à la régulation de la traduction, à savoir les voies: " mammalian target of rapamycin " (mTOR), " adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase " (AMPK) et " general control non-depressible kinase 2 " (GCN2). Cette étude a montré que l'adaptation à un régime de HP est caractérisée par la stimulation de la traduction dans le foie, au moins au niveau de l'étape d'initiation. Cette activation requiert à la fois la présence de fortes concentrations en AA (au moins la leucine ou des AAs à chaîne branchée) et d'insuline, comme l'indique l'augmentation de la phosphorylation de mTOR, 4E-BP1 et S6 et la diminution de la phosphorylation de l'AMPK et GCN2. L'utilisation de l'AICAR (activateur de l'AMPK) et de la rapamycine (inhibiteur de mTOR) nous a permis de montrer qu'en présence de fortes concentrations en AA et d'insuline, mTOR n'est pas le seul régulateur de 4E-BP1 et de la S6K1 (cibles de mTOR) et que l'AMPK peut également jouer un rôle important dans la régulation de leur état de phosphorylation. En outre, l'augmentation de l'apport protéique provoque une inhibition de la dégradation des protéines dans le foie et une diminution de l'expression des gènes codant les principales protéines du système autophagie et de l'ubiquitine-protéasome. En conséquence, les protéines sont moins ubiquitinées, donc moins dégradées. Les AAs et l'insuline semblent être les principaux régulateurs de la voie de protéolyse ubiquitine-protéasome et les voies mTOR et AMPK seraient les médiateurs des effets acides aminés et de l'insuline. Ces résultats suggèrent que le contrôle des voies cataboliques et anaboliques du métabolisme des protéines sont régulées par les mêmes signaux et font intervenir les mêmes voies de signalisation.

Les tumeurs solides sont souvent confrontées à un environnement déficient en oxygène, dit hypoxique. Hypoxia-Inducible Factor 1 (HIF1) est le facteur de transcription clé de l'adaptation cellulaire à l'hypoxie, régulant de nombreux gènes impliqués dans l'angiogenèse, le métabolisme cellulaire ou la régulation du pH. Ma thèse s'articule en trois axes autour de HIF1 et de la reprogrammation métabolique hypoxique. J'ai d'abord étudié Factor-Inhibiting HIF1 (FIH), l'un des deux senseurs d'oxygène régulant HIF1. Nous avons montré que FIH est essentiel dans le développement tumoral en inhibant à la fois l'activité transcriptionnelle de HIF1 et la voie p53-p21. J'ai ensuite étudié le " shift " du métabolisme cellulaire vers la glycolyse induit par HIF1, générant une addiction pour le glucose. Nos travaux ont montré que paradoxalement, les cellules hypoxiques synthétisent du glycogène via HIF1 constituant ainsi une réserve de glucose intracellulaire. Le glycogène confère alors une résistance accrue des cellules tumorales suite à une carence en glucose. Enfin, j'ai pu montrer que l'AMPK, " gardien de la balance énergétique ", n'est pas nécessaire au maintien d'un niveau viable d'ATP suite à l'inhibition de la glycolyse, via le blocage de l'export de lactate, mais exerce, un effet protecteur en absence de glucose. Cependant, l'inhibition conjointe du transporteur de lactate, MCT4, et de l'AMPK réduit fortement le développement tumoral dans un modèle de xénogreffes chez la souris, suggérant un rôle crucial de ces deux acteurs dans ce contexte. L'ensemble de ces travaux a permis d'identifier plusieurs cibles potentielles impliquées dans la plasticité métabolique en hypoxie.