The Coeur d’Alene salamander (Plethodon idahoensis) is a species of special concern throughout its global range, which includes southeastern BC (COSEWIC, Nov 2007), Idaho, and Montana, due to disjunct populations and sensitivity to human disturbance. Within the Interior Cedar-Hemlock forest on Mount Revelstoke, BC, Coeur d’Alene salamanders occur at their highest abundance between 600 m and 800 m. Beyond the Mount Revelstoke National Park boundaries, the low-order stream habitat of this species is subject to disturbance from forestry, mining, road building, road maintenance, and watercourse diversions such as run-of-the-river hydro projects. We conducted nocturnal salamander surveys and assessed habitat characteristics on 12 Sites (750 m² – 1000 m² stream transects) along three streams from June through September 2006. Coeur d’Alene salamanders were detected from 600 m - 1000 m on seven of the 12 study sites. Relative abundance of Coeur d’Alene salamanders ranged from 0.005 ± 0.001 per m² to 0.025 ± 0.005 per m² on six sites below 950 m. Coeur d’Alene salamanders occurred at an average of 0.001 ± 0.001 per m² at 972 m, the only site above 950 m where we detected salamanders. Our capture-mark-recapture efforts of three surveys per month in June and August yielded a very low recapture rate (3.95 %). Coeur d’Alene salamanders are challenging to enumerate due to their vertical distribution within the soil and underlying geological material. Neonate, juvenile, and adult Coeur d’Alene salamanders were observed from June to September and the highest proportion of neonates occurred in June, soon after the salamanders emerged from winter hibernation. Results of a logistic regression analysis of 1-m² plots reflected the importance of fine scale habitat characteristics (quadrat gradient, boulder, cobble, moss, grass, and shrub) in addition to site-level habitat features (water volume and elevation) that in combination describe the association of Coeur d’Alene salamanders with cool and moist conditions. Coeur d’Alene salamanders appear to select streambed habitat during warm, dry periods, which may be a behavioural response to minimize dehydration during periods of activity at the surface of the forest floor.

Wetlands of the Prairie Pothole Region of North America provide habitat for over 50% of the continent's breeding waterfowl, but most of the region's wetlands have been lost or degraded through intensive agricultural development. Despite widespread wetland losses in much of the Canadian prairies, there is little information about trends in degradation of remaining wetlands. Using habitat data collected for ~10,500 wetlands across the Canadian prairies during annual waterfowl surveys, 1985-2005, I employed multistate models in Program MARK to estimate rates of impact and recovery of wetlands resulting from agricultural activities. Then, I characterized the incidence of agricultural degradation to these wetlands. Rates of impact to wetland margins (natural vegetation around flooded basins) declined over time, likely due to a decreasing percentage of unaffected wetlands; recovery rates for margins were always lower than impact rates, suggesting increased cumulative degradation of wetlands over time. Unlike margins, impact and recovery rates for basins fluctuated with spring pond densities. Shallow ephemeral wetlands located in agricultural fields had the highest impact and lowest recovery rates. Multistate modeling could also be used to estimate rates associated with other landscape processes.<p><p> My second objective was to determine whether physical characteristics of prairie Canada wetlands could be used to predict breeding duck abundance. First, I sought to determine how pre-existing models developed in the Dakotas (USA) performed when predicting breeding duck abundances on Canadian prairie wetlands. I related duck pair abundance to pond area, and then compared observed to predicted duck abundance. The Dakota models performed reasonably well in predicting numbers of blue-winged teal (<i>Anas discors</i>), gadwall (<i>A. strepera</i>), and northern pintail (<i>A. acuta</i>), but predicted fewer mallards (<i>A. platyrhynchos</i>) and northern shovelers (<i>A. clypeata</i>) than were observed on wetlands. Pond area was an important predictor of duck abundance in all models, but results were less biased and more consistent in models developed specifically for Canadian wetlands. Spatiotemporal variation in the relationship of breeding duck abundance and wetland characteristics was also affected by regional duck and pond densities. Overall, the new applications and models developed and validated in this study will be useful for wetland and waterfowl management in the Canadian prairies.

Vegetation classification of Braun-Blanquet approach of vegetation ecology is widely accepted as a method to establish formal classification system. However, the measuring parameter commomly used by Taiwan ecologists is important value index (IVI) of Wisconsin school. The purpose of this paper is to study whether the different measuring parameters (IVI vs. cover-abundance scales) result in different vegetation classifications or not. Jhuokou River Basin was used as the studied area. Vegetation sampling data based on different parameters were analyzed by nonmetric multdimesional scaling¡]NMDS¡^and two-way indicator species analysis¡]TWINSAPN¡^and the resulted associations and alliances compared with their member plots, character species and dominant species. The results indicated that these attributes of alliances from both methods were higher regularity than associations, but further research is still needed to clarify these regularity patterns.

Within the content of this thesis, it was aimed to understand the changes in the biomass and abundance of heterotrophic bacteria and marine cyanobacteria Synechococcus in time with respect to multitude of ambient physical, chemical and biological factors. For this, monthly samples from discrete depths in the offshore (0-20-40-60-80-100-125-150-175-200 m) and in the near shore (surface and 10 m) stations over a period of one year in the Cilician Basin (eastern Mediterranean) were collected via rosette sampler. Epifluorescent microscope and the image analysis system were used to estimate abundance and biomass of both groups. Coastal station was more abundant and had much higher bacterial (heterotrophic bacteria) and cyanobacterial (Synechococcus) biomass than the offshore station as it receives substantial amount of freshwater from the nearby Lamas River throughout the year. The surface annual averages for bacterial and cyanobacterial abundance and biomass were 9600000 cells/ml - 56.5 microgram C/l and 400000 cells/ml - 24.1 microgram C/l, respectively, at the coastal station. The surface annual averages for bacterial and cyanobacterial abundance and biomass were 8100000 cells/ml &ndash / 49.1 microgram C/l and 210000 cells/ml &ndash / 10.6 microgram C/l, respectively, at the offshore station. Bacterial population always found to exceed Synechococcus abundance within the water column. In general, bacterial and cyanobacterial abundance and biomass tend to decrease with depth. On a seasonal basis, bacterial population was found excessively dominant at the surface or near-surface waters during the second half of the year. Synechococcus were also found more abundant during late summer and autumn. Temperature and nitrate concentration seemed to affect efficiently the abundance of both populations in the area. Based on Spearman Rank Correlation analysis, highly significant correlations between bacterial abundance as well as biomass and ambient temperature were observed at both stations. However, a significant correlation was found between Synechococcus and temperature only at the offshore station. Significant negative correlations are found between nitrate and bacterial abundance and biomass at both stations and between Synechococcus abundance and biomass only at the offshore station. At the offshore station, salinity was also found to be positively correlated with the bacterial and cyanobacterial abundance and biomass.

The eastern Mediterranean has been known as the most oligotrophic water body among the worlds oceans and as a result of limited nutrient inputs from terrestrial sources primary productivity and plankton succession are restricted by lack of nutrients especially by phosphorus and nitrogen. Within this domain, Mersin bay forms a so called hot spot (highly sensitive) area where a sharp contrast exists between the coastal area supplied by land-based nutrient sources and the nutrient limited open sea. Excess nutrient enrichment lead for eutrophication in the inner Mersin bay while altering the quality and quantity of flora from shore to offshore. Microorganisms are highly sensitive and profoundly affected by environmental disturbances and are widely used to assess the impact of environmental changes on ecosystem functioning. With this study, it is aimed to investigate responses of the smaller fractions of phytoplankton composed of heterotrophic bacteria, Synechococcus and flagellates to rapidly changing ambient biological, chemical and physical properties of shelf waters over an extended period between 2008 and 2010. Epiflourescence microscopy and image analysis setup were used to enumerate and measure size of cells for biomass estimates.

The coastal zone of Belize is home to the largest recorded number of the threatened Antillean manatee (Trichechus manatus manatus) within the species' Caribbean range. The objectives of my study were: (1) to determine long-term trends in aerial survey counts and indices of the manatee population in the coastal zone of Belize; and (2) to examine the seasonal change in manatee distribution among habitats in the coastal zone. Standardized extended-area aerial surveys were conducted along the entire coastline of Belize in the dry and wet seasons of 1997, and 1999 - 2002. Manatees were counted in five habitat categories: cay, coast, estuary, lagoon, and river. Total sightings per survey ranged from 90 to 338; the greatest number was counted in the 2002 wet season. Calf percentage ranged from 5 to 13. A slight negative trend in total counts was significant for dry-season, not wet-season surveys, indicating an interactive effect of season and year. Based on analysis of variance, the Abundance Index (transformed manatee sightings per hour) did not differ significantly among years, although it varied significantly within year by season and habitat by season. In applying a spatial approach, the general survey route was buffered 1 km on both sides, and 1 km grids were overlaid and classified by habitat type. The presence or absence of each cell for each survey was used in likelihood ratio tests of the single and interactive effect of season and habitat. The Index for river habitat was higher in the dry season, while cay habitat was higher in the wet season. Overall, near-shore habitat (estuary, lagoon, and river) showed a higher Index than did the offshore habitat (cay and coast) although the total number of sightings was higher offshore. Considering the interactive effect of year, season, and habitat, long-term studies are needed, in both seasons, and among all habitats to account for variation. Continued broad-scale surveys, along with metapopulation analysis would fine-tune the understanding of specific sites, enhancing integrated coastal zone management for protected species and their habitat systems.

Because of increasing frequency of bear sightings, vehicle collisions, and nuisance incidents in coastal South Carolina, the South Carolina Department of Natural Resources is developing a comprehensive black bear management plan. However, no reliable estimates of population abundance or density are available. I used genotypes of black bears determined from hair samples collected in Lewis Ocean Bay and Carvers Bay to estimate population abundance and density. I obtained hair samples from snares during 8 weekly sampling periods in 2008 and 2009. I used Huggins closed population models to estimate abundance and spatially explicit capture- recapture models to estimate density. Based on model averaging, black bear abundance was 30 (SE = 9.3) on Carvers Bay and 42 (SE = 5.4) on Lewis Ocean Bay. Model-averaged density was 0.037 bears/km2 (SE = 0.003) for Carvers Bay. For Lewis Ocean Bay, population densities were much higher: 0.307 bears/km2 (SE = 0.025). I extrapolated the density estimates to the upper coastal region of South Carolina, using logistic regression to weight density based on similarity of the regional landscape with the 2 study areas. Predicted bear densities were low throughout the coastal region but several areas centered on more productive habitats (e.g., Carolina Bays, pocosin) and public lands (e.g., Francis Marion National Forest, Lewis Ocean Bay) had high densities. I also sampled an area in North Carolina and assessed genetic structure among the 3 areas. Based on heterozygosity, genetic distance, and genetic assignment, I found no evidence of historic or recent barriers to gene exchange among the 3 sampled populations. However, demographic connectivity may be a concern for areas such as Lewis Ocean Bay, which is surrounded by highways and development. If the goal is to maintain current black bear densities in those areas, maintaining connectivity with other habitat areas and mitigating impacts of highways would be important. The regional map of potential black bear density may be useful to identify areas that should be surveyed for occupancy or where additional studies may be conducted (e.g., Francis Marion National Forest).

This dissertation is an investigation of dolphin sound production and distribution off west central Florida. Although a wealth of information exists on the production of common sounds (whistles, echolocation) made by captive, trained dolphins, far less is known about free-ranging dolphin sound production and of unusual sounds. In addition, while inshore dolphin populations or communities are the subjects of research projects in many locations, dolphins in offshore waters are less commonly studied. The objectives of this dissertation were to contribute information on free-ranging dolphin sounds and continental shelf dolphin distribution. While echolocation has been rigorously studied in captive, trained dolphins, there is far less known about how free-ranging dolphins use their echolocation. In order to investigate the use of echolocation by free-ranging dolphins, echolocation recordings from 14 groups of common bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) were obtained during towed hydrophone cruises on the West Florida Shelf (WFS) and in Tampa Bay. The mean echolocation pulse rate was inversely related to water depth, suggesting echolocation pulse rate was a function of the two-way travel time of echolocation pulses, which was related to depth. Pulse rate modes were related to potential target distances, and indicated dolphins were commonly echolocating on targets up to at least 91.8 m away. The results of this study indicate that free-ranging bottlenose dolphins are using their echolocation in a manner similar to that found in studies with captive, trained dolphins. Unusual low frequency sounds from bottlenose dolphins were found in the towed hydrophone recordings in Tampa Bay, and the acoustic properties and behavioral contexts of these sounds were investigated. Additional recordings were obtained from Sarasota Bay and Mississippi Sound. These low frequency narrow-band (LFN) sounds were tonal, had peak frequencies between 500 Hz and 1000 Hz, and were produced in trains. Inter-LFN intervals (the time duration between sequential LFN sounds) were significantly longer in recordings from Mississippi Sound. Sounds were correlated with social behavior, and were common during socio-sexual behavior. These sounds were found below optimal hearing range of bottlenose dolphins, and are prone to masking by boats. A combination of autonomous acoustic recorders and visual surveys were used to determine the distribution and sound production patterns on the WFS. Visual surveys supported the results of previous studies indicating that bottlenose dolphins were more common in coastal areas and off of Tampa Bay, while Atlantic spotted dolphins (Stenella frontalis) were more common beyond the 20 m isobath. A single group of rough-toothed dolphins (Steno bredanensis) was observed. Overall, dolphin numbers decreased from inshore to offshore. Acoustic detections mirrored this distribution pattern, however acoustic detections were not as high in coastal regions as expected from the visual survey results, which suggests low sound production rates by coastal dolphins. Atlantic spotted dolphin numbers increased in more northern and inshore waters in spring, suggesting a seasonal migration pattern. Peaks in dolphin sounds in the coastal regions were commonly observed in daylight and evening hours, while in offshore areas sound production peaked at night. This pattern likely reflects foraging activity, and the diel activity cycles of common prey species. Coastal dolphins made proportionately more echolocation than whistles, while the opposite was true for deeper water dolphins. In inshore waters (< 25 m depth), dolphin sound production was generally positively correlated to water temperature (bottom temperature and sea surface temperature) and negatively correlated with chlorophyll, while the opposite pattern tends to occur in deeper waters (> 35 m). This delineation roughly coincides with the distribution patterns of oceanographic properties, prey species distribution, and the distribution of Atlantic spotted dolphins and bottlenose dolphin ecotypes. These results suggest a shift from a benthic based ecosystem to a phytoplankton based ecosystem with increasing depth on the WFS.

Numerous studies have confirmed a statistically significant negative relationship between natural resource abundance and economic growth. This has been labeled “The Resource Curse”. In this paper we try to explain why Botswana, a country heavily dependent on its diamond industry, has managed to generate sustainable growth. Economists have advanced several explanations for the negative impact of natural resources on long-term growth. This paper focuses on the following important problems: First, a boom in a natural resource can pull resources away from other sectors of the economy, thus harming their international competitiveness, a phenomenon called the Dutch disease. Second, abundance in natural resources may lead to poor institutional quality in many countries. Thanks to conservative fiscal policies and accumulation of foreign reserves the local currency did not appreciate during the boom, and Botswana avoided the most severe symptoms of the Dutch disease. Historical tradition of democratic procedures and sound institutions at the time of diamond discovery has contributed to a high institutional quality in Botswana.

The Coeur d’Alene salamander (Plethodon idahoensis) is a species of special concern throughout its global range, which includes southeastern BC (COSEWIC, Nov 2007), Idaho, and Montana, due to disjunct populations and sensitivity to human disturbance. Within the Interior Cedar-Hemlock forest on Mount Revelstoke, BC, Coeur d’Alene salamanders occur at their highest abundance between 600 m and 800 m. Beyond the Mount Revelstoke National Park boundaries, the low-order stream habitat of this species is subject to disturbance from forestry, mining, road building, road maintenance, and watercourse diversions such as run-of-the-river hydro projects. We conducted nocturnal salamander surveys and assessed habitat characteristics on 12 Sites (750 m² – 1000 m² stream transects) along three streams from June through September 2006. Coeur d’Alene salamanders were detected from 600 m - 1000 m on seven of the 12 study sites. Relative abundance of Coeur d’Alene salamanders ranged from 0.005 ± 0.001 per m² to 0.025 ± 0.005 per m² on six sites below 950 m. Coeur d’Alene salamanders occurred at an average of 0.001 ± 0.001 per m² at 972 m, the only site above 950 m where we detected salamanders. Our capture-mark-recapture efforts of three surveys per month in June and August yielded a very low recapture rate (3.95 %). Coeur d’Alene salamanders are challenging to enumerate due to their vertical distribution within the soil and underlying geological material. Neonate, juvenile, and adult Coeur d’Alene salamanders were observed from June to September and the highest proportion of neonates occurred in June, soon after the salamanders emerged from winter hibernation. Results of a logistic regression analysis of 1-m² plots reflected the importance of fine scale habitat characteristics (quadrat gradient, boulder, cobble, moss, grass, and shrub) in addition to site-level habitat features (water volume and elevation) that in combination describe the association of Coeur d’Alene salamanders with cool and moist conditions. Coeur d’Alene salamanders appear to select streambed habitat during warm, dry periods, which may be a behavioural response to minimize dehydration during periods of activity at the surface of the forest floor.