Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2012. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Human-modified habitats form increasingly large components of landscapes, threatening biodiversity and creating challenges for conservation. In some cases altered habitats form entirely novel ecosystems that may support new combinations of species and species abundances, and create habitat space in otherwise transformed landscapes. In the Western Cape of South Africa, woody invasive species contribute to landscape-level habitat transformation and form novel ecosystems. Invasive Australian Acacia species are especially problematic in lowland areas where they create dense thickets and substantially transform both biotic communities and abiotic processes. Despite the prominence of Acacia thickets across the Western Cape, their ability to support native fauna is not well understood and the objective of this study was to assess the significance of Acacia thickets as habitat for the region’s avifauna. Birds were surveyed in Acacia thickets in the south-western Western Cape in three seasons to examine species richness, abundance and functional abundance. Furthermore, I examined the extent to which differences in patch-level vegetation structure alter bird communities. Between survey sites and seasons, significant variation was observed in assemblage richness, density, median body size and biomass. Variation in vegetation density, stem density, mean vegetation height and total canopy cover best explained variation in bird assemblages. Eighty species were estimated to utilize Acacia thickets and assemblages had a mean density of 7.78 birds per ha. The most abundant feeding guilds were the mixed feeders and insectivores. The median body size observed was 15.2 g and the body size frequency distribution of all species in Acacia spanned a similar range compared to the body size frequency distribution for the species list for the entire Western Cape. The mean biomass of bird communities was 0.224 kg per ha. Using data on bird density and biomass, Acacia thickets across the Fynbos Biome support and estimated average of over 21 million birds with a combined biomass of over 600 thousand kg. This study found that Acacia thickets in the Western Cape support a subset of the region’s birds with the most abundant species being small mixed feeders, which are also frequently urban-adapted. Compared with other habitat types, Acacia support bird assemblages with moderate species richness and density. This study shows that Acacia thickets, as a novel habitat, provide a significant amount of habitat space in a highly transformed landscape and highlights the need for comprehensive evaluation of altered habitats before assumptions are made about their ecological value. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Getransformeerde habitatte maak vermeerderend groot deel uit van die omgewing, dit bedreig biodiversiteit en skep groter uitdagings vir bewaring. In sommige gevalle vorm hierdie getransformeerde habitatte geheel nuwe ekosisteme wat moontlik nuwe kombinasies van spesies en spesie volopheid kan onderhou. Verder skep nuwe ekosisteme habitat spasie in anders veranderde landskappe. In die Wes-Kaap van Suid-Afrika dra die Australiese Acacia indringer spesies is veral problematies in laagliggende areas, aangesien dit digte ruigtes vorm, asook beide die biotiese gemeenskappe en die abiotiese prosesse aansienlik transformeer. Ten spyte daarvan dat daar volop Acacia ruigtes in die WesKaap is, word min verstaan van hul vermoë om inheemse fauna te onderhou. Die hoofdoel van hierdie studie was om die belang van Acacia ruigtes as habitat vir die area se voëllewe te bepaal. Voël-opnames in die suidwestelike dele van die Wes-Kaap is gedoen in Acacia ruigtes oor drie seisoene, om spesierykheid, volopheid en funksionele volopheid te ondersoek. Verder is die mate waartoe verskille in die plotte van die plantegroei struktuur, die voëlgemeenskappe verander, geondersoek. Daar was aansienlike variasie waargeneem in die spesiesamestelling rykheid, voorkoms digtheid, mediaan liggaamsgrootte en biomassa van die voëls tussen die onderskeie voëlopnaam plotte en die seisoene. Die variasie in plantegroei digtheid, stam digtheid, mediaan plantegroeihoogte en totale kroonbedekking verduidelik hierdie variasie in spesiesamestelling die beste. Tagtig voëlspesies Acacia ruigtes benut en die populasiesamestelling het ‘n gemiddelde digtheid van 7,78 voëls per ha. Die mees algemene voel-voeding-guldes was die gemengde-voedsel-vreters en insekvreters. Die median liggaamsgrootte waargeneem was 15,2 g en die liggaamsgrootte frekwensieverspreiding van alle spesies in Acacia ruigtes is ooreenkomstig met die liggaamsgrootte frekwensieverspreiding vir die spesielys vir die hele Wes-Kaap. Die gemiddelde biomassa van voel gemeenskappe was 0.224 kg per ha. Acacia ruigtes oor die fynbosbioom wat ‘n geskatte gemiddelde van meer as 21 miljoen voels ondersteun, met ‘n gesamentlike biomassa van meer as 600 duisend kg. Hierdie studie het bevind dat Acacia ruigtes in die Wes-Kaap ‘n onderafdeling van die streek se voels ondersteun, met die mees algemene spesies as die klein gemengde-voedsel-vreters, wat ook dikwels stedelik aangepas is. In vergelyking met ander habitattipes ondersteun Acacia ruigtes voel samestellings met matige spesierykheid en digtheid. Hierdie studie toon dat die Acacia ruigtes, as ‘n nuwe habitat, ‘n beduidende hoeveelheid habitat ruimte in ‘n hoogs getransformeerde omgewing skep en beklemtoon die behoefte aan ‘n omvattende evaluering van veranderde habitatte, voor aannames gemaak word oor hul ekologiese waarde.

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2012. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Large-scale human-mediated movements of organisms promote the establishment of species outside their native ranges and a very small proportion of these species become invasive. Invasive species management typically assumes that introduced species are single, static evolutionary units that are genetically analogous to their native counterparts. However, studies have shown that native and introduced populations of a number of introduced plants differ vastly in their genetic composition. These differences may negatively affect the overall success of control and management programmes, particularly for species that are intra-specifically diverse. The influence of intra-specific diversity on the invasion process was tested in two widely exported tree species that are native to Western Australia, Acacia saligna (three subspecies) and Paraserianthes lophantha (two subspecies). Climate matching between the native and introduced range (using species distribution models, SDM) is widely used to forecast future invasion risks, however, it is unknown if SDMs can detect intra-specific niche differences in invasive plants. The SDMs I developed for the subspecies of A. saligna detected intra-specific differences within the native range, but did not predict the full invasive distribution in South Africa. Unsurprisingly, SDMs agreed with genetic analyses (based on nuclear microsatellites, nuclear DNA, and chloroplast DNA) and did not assign South African populations to any subspecies of A. saligna. South African populations were assigned to a novel genetic entity likely produced by human cultivation practices. A global phylogeny identified this cultivated genotype in introduced populations in eastern Australia and Portugal, while the remaining introduced populations differed markedly in their genetic composition. Overall, A. saligna‘s high intra-specific diversity and complex introduction history generated a variety of genetic patterns across the current global distribution of the taxon. Global populations of P. lophantha were processed using a similar approach to that used for A. saligna, and aimed to determine if the same pathways and modes of introduction produced analogous genetic patterns in a closely related species. Diverse arrays of genotypes were identified in introduced populations of P. lophantha, suggesting inconsistent sampling of a variety of native sources. Further work is however needed to clarify the morphological and genetic differences (if any) between the intra-specific entities, and identify exactly which P. lophantha subspecies were introduced outside of their native range, The variation in the global distribution of genetic diversity observed in A. saligna and P.lophantha demonstrated that intra-specific genetic variation, human usage, and the pathway and manner of introduction interact during several phases of the invasion process and collectively determine the introduced genetic patterns. The dissimilarity in the distribution of genotypes in both species suggests that they might not behave the same way throughout their introduced range. Consequently, management insights might not be transferrable between regions. More generally, my findings provide an important contribution to the debate whether (and how quickly) introduced and native populations should be treated as fundamentally different entities. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Grootskaalse menslike verskuiwing van organismes bevorder die vestiging van spesies buite hul natuurlike voorkomsareas en 'n klein hoeveelheid van hierdie spesies word indringers. Tydens die bestuur van indringerspesies word dit tipies aanvaar dat ingevoerde indringerspesies enkele, statiese evolusionêre eenhede is wat analoog is aan hul inhmeemse eweknieë. Studies het egter getoon dat inheemse en uitheemse populasies van 'n aantal ingevoerde plante aansienlik verskil in hul genetiese samestelling. Hierdie verskille kan 'n negatiewe invloed op die algehele sukses van beheer- en bestuursprojekte hê, veral vir die spesies wat intra-spesifiek divers is. Die invloed van intra-spesifieke diversiteit op die indringingsproses is getoets aan twee boomspesies, inheems aan Wes-Australië, wat wyd uitgevoer word: Acacia saligna (drie subspesies) en Paraserianthes lophantha (twee subspesies). Vergelyking van klimaatstoestande tussen n spesie se in- en uitheemse voorkomsareas word wyd gebruik om toekomstige indringingsrisiko te voorspel. Dit was voor hierdie navorsing onduidelik of spesie verspreiding modelle (SVMs) intra-spesifieke nis-verskille in indringerplante kan uitwys. SVMs wat vir die subspesies van A. saligna ontwikkel is, kon intra-spesifieke verskille in Wes-Australië uitwys, maar het nie die volle verspreiding van die spesies in Suid-Afrika voorspel nie. Onverbasend, is geen Suid-Afrikaanse populasies deur genetiese analise (gebaseer op die kern mikrosatelliete, kern-DNS, en chloroplas-DNS) toegewys aan 'n subspesie van A. Saligna nie. Suid-Afrikaanse populasies het 'n nuwe genetiese entiteit wat waarskynlik gekweek is deur menslike verbouingspraktyke. 'n Globale filogenie het hierdie verboude genotipe in addisionele ingevoerde populasies in die ooste van Australië en Portugal geïdentifiseer. Mikrosatelliet genotipes van uitheemse populasies wêreldwyd in Oos-Australië, Israel, Italië, Nieu-Seeland, Portugal, Suid-Afrika, Spanje en die VSA verskil merkbaar in hul genetiese samestelling. A. saligna se hoë intra-spesifieke diversiteit en komplekse geskiedenis van invoer (wat verbouing, wye verspreiding en hoë ―propagule druk betrek), het 'n verskeidenheid van genetiese patrone oor die huidige globale verspreiding van die takson gegenereer. Om te bepaal of 'n globale uiteenlopende genetiese patroon binne nouverwante spesies bestaan, is globale bevolkings van Paraserianthes lophantha verwerk deur gebruik te maak van 'n soortgelyke benadering as wat vir A. saligna gebruik is. Globale populasies van beide studie-spesies bestaan uit 'n diverse verskeidenheid van genotipes. Resultate dui daarop dat P. lophantha van 'n verskeidenheid inheemse bronne ingevoer is. Om te identifiseer watter P. lophantha subspesies buite hul natuurlike voorkomsarea versprei is, word verdere werk benodig om die morfologiese en genetiese verskille (indien enige) tussen die intra-spesifieke entiteite vas te stel. In hierdie tesis het ek gewys dat intra-spesifieke genetiese variasie, menslike gebruik en invoering-geskiedenis saam werk om genetiese patrone in uitheemse populasies te vorm. Verder het ek die waarde van die gebruik van verskillende molekulêre benaderings om indringing geskiedenis te verstaan, gedemonstreer. Die verskil in die verspreiding van die genotipes van A. saligna en P. lophantha dui daarop dat hulle moontlik nie op dieselfde manier dwarsdeur hul uitheemse verspreidingsarea mag optree nie. Bestuursinsigte mag gevolglik nie oordraagbaar wees tussen streke nie. Meer algemeen, bied my bevindings 'n belangrike bydrae tot die debat of (en hoe vinnig) inheemse en ingevoerde populasies behandel moet word as fundamenteel verskillende entiteite.

Promotion of agroforestry practices in sub-Sahara Africa may help sustain subsistent food and wood production by integrating trees and crops on farmlands to replenish soil fertility and improve crop yield. Using rotational woodlot and pigeonpea intercropping systems in semi-arid Tanzania as case studies, my research screened suitable tree species to increase fuelwood supply and examined mechanisms for reducing tree-crop competition. By adopting nutrient use efficiency (the ratio of biomass yield to nutrient uptake) as a criterion, I found that selecting tree species of low wood nutrient concentrations would minimize nutrient exports by 42 – 60 %, thus reducing soil nutrient depletion while concurrently sustaining local fuelwood supply harvested from rotational woodlots. Currently smallholder farmers cannot afford to replenish soil fertility because of high fertilizer costs. However, 5-year tree fallowing raised soil N and P levels for maize culture as high as those from recommended fertilizer applications. Post-fallow maize yield was also increased significantly over natural fallow practices. Apparently there is a trade-off between yields of maize and fuelwood under rotational woodlot culture providing farmers the choice to proportion tree and crop composition based on priority demands. An alternative practice of intercropping pigeonpea with maize may also rapidly replenish soil fertility as well as enhance maize yield when competitive interactions between trees and crops are controlled. Vector analysis revealed that such interactions suppressed biomass yields of maize and pigeonpea by 30 % and 60 %, respectively, due to limited soil nutrients and/or moisture. Optimizing yields of both crops would require prescribed fertilizer addition when intercropped, but dose rates can be lowered by half under the improved fallow system due to alleviating interspecific competition. My findings form the basis of a plea for greater use of rotational woodlot and pigeonpea intercropping systems in semi-arid areas. I conclude that smallholder farm management of rotational agroforestry systems can be significantly improved by refining tree selection criteria and mitigating nutrient competition between trees and crops to maintain food and fuelwood production.

Black wattle (Acacia mearnsii) is one of South Africa's leading commercial exotic species comprising nearly seven percent of South African forestry plantations. The planting of black wattle has become increasingly popular, initially for its high quality tannin content and in more recent times, for its wood and wood products. The industry also provides jobs for more than 36 000 people. Despite the commercial value of black wattle, if left unmanaged, it is one of South Africa's top invader species that aggressively colonise and rapidly out-competes indigenous vegetation. Thus, both plant breeders and environmentalists alike are faced with an interesting paradox of balancing the commercial significance of black wattle on the one hand with increasing environmental concern on the other. At the Institute for Commercial Forestry Research (ICFR), black wattle breeding programmes are being designed and implemented in order to reduce invasiveness whilst still maintaining product quality. One way of minimising invasiveness is to decrease fertility through the introduction of semi-sterility; while at the same time leaving product yield and quality unaffected. A method of achieving semi-sterility is by the induction of autopolyploidy that results in unviable gametes. Autopolyploidy, tetraploidy, is induced chemically through doubling of the chromosomes of diploids. These induced tetraploids may then be crossed with diploids to produce triploids. Thus, an effective method to identify polyploids at the seedling stage would greatly facilitate the success of the abovementioned breeding programmes in the black wattle industry. Polyploidy in plants is often associated with physiological and biochemical changes that become apparent as gigantism of organs which include fruits, flowers and leaves. Polyploidy is also associated with an increase in the number of organelles such as the number of stomatal chloroplasts and nucleoli, as well as an increased production of some proteins and pigments such as chlorophyll. These ploidy-related manifestations are often utilised in breeding programmes to increase the size and quality of plant products as well as a tool to discriminate between polyploids and diploids. Two putative diagnostic procedures to differentiate between diploid and tetraploid black wattle were developed in this investigation. The study focused on the discriminating power of stomatal chloroplast numbers and arrangements as well as the chlorophyll content in the two different ploids. A number of associated experiments were initially conducted to establish the optimal conditions for chlorophyll content analyses such as the type of leaf material and storage conditions. Stomatal chloroplast frequencies were determined in diploid and tetraploid black wattle and comprised three lines per ploidy level with five plants per line. A thin epidermal layer from the abaxial surface of a pinnule was stripped, stained, mounted and 15 stomatal guard cells per plant were viewed at 40X magnification. The mean number of chloroplasts per cell in diploids (9.89 ± 0.222) was found to be statistically different (p < 0.001) to that of tetraploids (22.43 ± 0.222) with no overlapping of the mean chloroplast values between the two ploidy levels. The ratio of diploid and tetraploid stomatal chloroplast numbers was roughly 1:2. An analysis of the least significant difference (LSD) was performed and indicated significant differences between plants within lines, between lines of different ploids (LSD =0.6266), as well as between the different ploids (LSD =0.2802). Furthermore, stomatal chloroplasts spatial arrangements were distinctly different in diploids and tetraploids. In diploids, chloroplasts were clustered into two regions, each towards the extreme ends of the kidney shaped stomatal cells. In the tetraploids, no clustering of chloroplasts could be identified, with an even distribution around the convex curvature/perimeter of the cells. There are a number of factors that influence chlorophyll content and degradation, which are either environmental or genetic in nature. Environmental factors that were considered are sample age and sample storage conditions. Genetic factors include genetic composition and, specifically, the number of sets of chromosomes, that is, the ploidy. Chlorophyll content was investigated by chemically extracting chlorophyll from leaf material and obtaining absorbance spectra with a PerkinElmer UV/vis spectrometer for wavelengths from 400 nm to 700 nm. Chlorophyll absorbance spectra were generated in terms of leaves stored prior to chlorophyll extraction, leaves of different ages, trees of different ages and ploidy. The effects of storage of leaves on chlorophyll content were determined in five non-identical two year-old nursery diploid black wattle genotypes. Fifteen leaf samples from each genotype were either oven dried and then stored for one week or one month at room temperature, or frozen for one week or one month at -4 °C, before chlorophyll was extracted and absorbance spectra determined. Chlorophyll absorbance values of chlorophyll extracted from leaf material on the day of collection (day-0) was used as the control. An analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed that the chlorophyll absorbance values of the different storage treatments were all significantly lower than the chlorophyll absorbance values of the control (p < 0.001). Assessment of the mean chlorophyll absorbance (TĀ), sum of the three peak absorbance values at three wavelengths, namely, 433 nm, 456 nm and 663 nm, revealed significant differences (p < 0.001) from the control (TĀ = 1.275) for all treatments. Dried leaves that were stored for seven days (TĀ = 1.132) resulted in the least amount of chlorophyll degradation followed by 28 day ice storage (TĀ = 1.114), seven day ice storage (TĀ = 1.103) and lastly 28 day dried storage (TĀ = 1.093). An analysis of least significant differences (LSD) revealed that chlorophyll absorbance values within lines and between wavelengths were significantly different (LSD = 0.005). Furthermore, LSD analysis revealed significant differences between all treatments (LSD =0.003) which also supported the ANOVA findings. Chlorophyll absorbance values within dried and frozen treatments were compared with respect to storage time periods of one week and one month. It was noted that whilst all treatments decreased from the control (day-0), dried samples responded differently to storage periods as compared to frozen samples. Chlorophyll absorbance values of dried material decreased steadily over time from control to seven-day storage to one-month storage, whereas, in the case of frozen material, a similar trend could not be identified. A greater decrease from the control to seven day ice storage was recorded than for the decrease from the control to 28 day ice storage. The effects of tree and leaf ages of diploid black wattle on chlorophyll content were determined. Two types of leaf flushes namely, old and new flush, were examined in relation to different tree ages; two, four, six, eight and nine year-old; in order to assess whether the choice of material impacts on chlorophyll absorbance values. Five leaf samples from each tree were collected, bagged and chlorophyll extracted within two hours of collection. These chlorophyll absorbance values were compared to young diploid seedling material as a base-value and as a control value. An analysis of variance (ANOVA), revealed significant differences between tree ages and between leaf ages (p < 0.001). An analysis of least significant differences (LSD) revealed that new flush of all tree age groups were significantly different from the control (LSD = 0.006). This was mostly true for old flush, except that of six year-old old flush which was not significantly different from the control (LSD =0.006). The chlorophyll absorbance values of both old and new flush of different age groups produced spectral graphs for which no specific trends could be ascertained. Therefore, the data from the two flush types were pooled and revealed a marked increase in chlorophyll absorbance as trees became older. Moreover, this increase was more apparent in new flush than in old flush. Interestingly, juvenile characteristics were identified in two year-old black wattle trees, where a marked increase in chlorophyll content was noted. The effects of the number of chromosome sets on chlorophyll content were assessed for diploid and tetraploid black wattle. Seedlings, bagged juveniles as well as two year-old field trees were analysed. Three genetic lines per ploidy level comprising of ten plants per line were used in the analysis. An analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed significant increases of chlorophyll absorbance values (p < 0.001) for diploid seedlings (TĀ = 1.1086) to bagged trees (TĀ = 1.149) to field trees (TĀ = 1.224). Similar significant increases were recorded for the tetraploid seedlings (TĀ = 1.886) to bagged trees (TĀ = 1.931) to field trees (TĀ = 2.059). There were distinct differences in chlorophyll absorbance between the two levels of ploidy (LSD =0.002). Furthermore, chlorophyll absorbance within lines, between wavelengths were found not to be significant (p = 0.984), which was supported by an analysis of least significant differences (LSD = 0.004). Moreover, the ratio of diploid to tetraploid chlorophyll absorbance was roughly 2:3. Additionally, the increase of chlorophyll content from seedlings to bagged juveniles to field material of both diploid and tetraploid black wattle further supported the findings in the previous age study that there was an increase in chlorophyll content as the tree matures. Stomatal chloroplast frequencies and chlorophyll content have been identified as two methods that are able to effectively, and with ease, discern between diploid and tetraploid black wattle. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2004.

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2012. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: see item for full text / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: sien item vir volteks

Urban open spaces are of strategic importance to the quality of life of our increasingly urbanized society. Trees and related vegetation are planted and managed within the communities and cities to create or add value to the busy lives of the city dwellers. Trees in towns and cities form an important part of complex urban ecosystems and provide significant ecosystem services and benefits for urban dwellers, for example: reducing particulate pollution, carbon sequestration, decreasing air temperature, decreasing water runoff, aesthetic value and an increase in human health. Trees are solarpowered technology that can help restore balance to dysfunctional urban ecosystems. Trees form strands in the urban fabric that connect people to nature and to each other. The urban environment puts tremendous strain on trees by trenching, limited space for root growth and emission of pollutants into the atmosphere, water and soil. The problem is that the real impact of the urban environment on the trees within our community is unknown. The aim of this investigation was to assess the overall anthropogenic and environmental impacts on urban trees by measuring the tree vitality of Acacia karroo using chlorophyll fluorescence kinetics (JIP-test) and the leaf water potential using a pressure chamber. Tree vitality was quantified as the chlorophyll fluorescence-based performance index (PIABS)T. ree vitality measurements were also correlated with soil physical and chemical data. In the comparative study, an urbanization gradient approach was followed in which results of trees in rural areas were regarded as controls. The gradient approach is used worldwide and provides a background for questions of ecological structure and function. The urbanization gradient was quantified using the V-I-S model, based on % cover of vegetation, impervious surface and soil. Additionally, a model to determine the monetary value of trees in urban environments (SATAM) was tested. All this information could eventually contribute to develop an urban tree management program for Potchefstroom. It was evident from the current study that urbanization has a negative impact on tree vitality. The leaf water potential of a tree was, however, not necessarily negatively impacted upon. Although trees in urban environments did not always have a high vitality (PIABS)t, hey still played a major role in the urban environment. According to the tree appraisal method (SATAM), some of these trees have a value of R60 000. / Thesis (M. Environmental Science (Ecological Remediation and Sustainable Utilisation))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2007.

Submitted in fulfillment of the Master’s Degree in Homoeopathy, Department of Homoeopathy, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa, 2016. / Aim The aim of this homoeopathic proving study was to determine and document the arising symptomatology of Acacia xanthophloea (Fever tree) in the potentised homoeopathic form, 30CH, and to provide this data for inclusion to the homoeopathic materia medica. The results of this proving study and comparative analysis to African traditional medicinal uses of this substance confirms the potential therapeutic value of the remedy. Methodology The homoeopathic drug proving of Acacia xanthophloea 30CH was conducted in the form of a double blinded placebo controlled study. The investigation consisted of a total of 30 provers divided equally between two researchers ((A. Gobind and G. Zondi). The sample was randomly divided into two groups in which 24 provers(80%) were assigned into the verum group and the remaining six provers (20%) were allocated to the placebo group. All provers were requested to record their daily symptoms on the physical, mental and emotional planes in their journals for one week prior to administration of the proving substance. This formed as a mode of control for the comparison of symptomatology for the pre-proving and post proving period. A thorough case history was taken and physical examination performed on each prover before the commencement of the proving and after the duration of the proving period. Each prover received a total of nine powders. Starting on day 8 of the study the provers consumed one powder three times a day for three days and documented their daily symptoms in a journal. The duration of the proving term was six weeks in total. During this interval the researcher maintained consistent contact with the provers. Upon completion of the proving period all journals were collected and the information contained within these journals was translated into the materia medica and repertory format. This facilitated the establishment of the remedy portrait of Acacia xanthophloea 30CH. A subsequent comparison between the symptomatology that materialised in the provers and the African traditional medicinal uses was duly conducted. Results An extensive range of symptoms was reported by the provers. The outstanding themes that emanated from this proving on the mental plane include anger, anxiety, aversion to company, cheerful, depression, irritability, mood swings, restlessness, tranquillity and stress. A broad range of headaches were described with some headaches being associated with the eye. There were many eye symptoms displayed by the provers which include itching, redness, burning sensation and pain. The stomach symptoms revealed marked increased thirst, changeable appetite, bloating, constipation and diarrhoea with watery stools.The female genitalia / sex indicated several symptoms ranging from painful menstruation, bleeding and copious blood flow.The greatest number of symptoms in a system was associated with extremities, producing the greatest number of rubrics in the repertory section. Dream themes depicted by the provers were especially visionary, about family and friends in addition to other themes. The correlation process between the homoeopathic drug proving of Acacia xanthophloea 30CH and the African traditional medicinal use of the substance brought several resemblances to light.There were clear similarities with the eye symptoms, gastrointestinal symptoms and headaches. Conclusion As hypothesised Acacia xanthophloea 30CH did produce distinctly observable signs and symptoms when administered to healthy provers. The symptoms that emerged during the proving provide evidence that an overlay exists between the remedy Acacia xanthphloea 30CH and the traditional use of the crude substance Acacia xanthophloea. The researcher proposes that further research should be conducted to determine the symptomatology of various homoeopathic potencies so that a complete image of the remedy Acacia xanthophloea 30CH can be established and the clinical applications can be broadened. / M

Submitted in fulfillment of the Master’s Degree in Homoeopathy, Department of Homoeopathy, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa, 2016. / Aim The aim of this homoeopathic proving study was to determine and document the arising symptomatology of Acacia xanthophloea (Fever tree) in the potentised homoeopathic form, 30CH, and to provide this data for inclusion to the homoeopathic materia medica. The results of this proving study and comparative analysis to African traditional medicinal uses of this substance confirms the potential therapeutic value of the remedy. Methodology The homoeopathic drug proving of Acacia xanthophloea 30CH was conducted in the form of a double blinded placebo controlled study. The investigation consisted of a total of 30 provers divided equally between two researchers ((A. Gobind and G. Zondi). The sample was randomly divided into two groups in which 24 provers(80%) were assigned into the verum group and the remaining six provers (20%) were allocated to the placebo group. All provers were requested to record their daily symptoms on the physical, mental and emotional planes in their journals for one week prior to administration of the proving substance. This formed as a mode of control for the comparison of symptomatology for the pre-proving and post proving period. A thorough case history was taken and physical examination performed on each prover before the commencement of the proving and after the duration of the proving period. Each prover received a total of nine powders. Starting on day 8 of the study the provers consumed one powder three times a day for three days and documented their daily symptoms in a journal. The duration of the proving term was six weeks in total. During this interval the researcher maintained consistent contact with the provers. Upon completion of the proving period all journals were collected and the information contained within these journals was translated into the materia medica and repertory format. This facilitated the establishment of the remedy portrait of Acacia xanthophloea 30CH. A subsequent comparison between the symptomatology that materialised in the provers and the African traditional medicinal uses was duly conducted. Results An extensive range of symptoms was reported by the provers. The outstanding themes that emanated from this proving on the mental plane include anger, anxiety, aversion to company, cheerful, depression, irritability, mood swings, restlessness, tranquillity and stress. A broad range of headaches were described with some headaches being associated with the eye. There were many eye symptoms displayed by the provers which include itching, redness, burning sensation and pain. The stomach symptoms revealed marked increased thirst, changeable appetite, bloating, constipation and diarrhoea with watery stools.The female genitalia / sex indicated several symptoms ranging from painful menstruation, bleeding and copious blood flow.The greatest number of symptoms in a system was associated with extremities, producing the greatest number of rubrics in the repertory section. Dream themes depicted by the provers were especially visionary, about family and friends in addition to other themes. The correlation process between the homoeopathic drug proving of Acacia xanthophloea 30CH and the African traditional medicinal use of the substance brought several resemblances to light.There were clear similarities with the eye symptoms, gastrointestinal symptoms and headaches. Conclusion As hypothesised Acacia xanthophloea 30CH did produce distinctly observable signs and symptoms when administered to healthy provers. The symptoms that emerged during the proving provide evidence that an overlay exists between the remedy Acacia xanthphloea 30CH and the traditional use of the crude substance Acacia xanthophloea. The researcher proposes that further research should be conducted to determine the symptomatology of various homoeopathic potencies so that a complete image of the remedy Acacia xanthophloea 30CH can be established and the clinical applications can be broadened. / M

As espécies fixadoras de nitrogênio (N) são utilizadas junto às plantações florestais com o objetivo de incremento de N. Entretanto quando essas espécies são inseridas à monocultura acorre interferência na formação da serapilheira e, consequentemente, a ciclagem de nutrientes do sistema. O estudo foi desenvolvido em plantios puros e mistos de Eucalyptus grandis e Acacia mangium na Estação Experimental de Ciências Florestais da ESALQ- USP, em Itatinga - SP. O presente trabalho constitui de dois experimentos utilizando a técnica in situ de bolsas de decomposição e teve como objetivos: a) avaliar a dinâmica de decomposição de folhas e raízes finas de E. grandis e A. mangium em diferentes plantios e qual a influência da composição química do material vegetal e do solo na ciclagem de nutrientes, a \"teoria da vantagem doméstica\"; b) estudar a ciclagem de nutrientes em plantios consorciados através da determinação da composição química e a qualidade do material vegetal em decomposição; c) estimar a transferência bruta e líquida de nitrogênio durante a decomposição de folhas na mistura das duas espécies, com a finalidade de entender as interações ecológicas no consórcio do eucalipto com leguminosa. A decomposição de folhas e raízes das duas espécies estudadas apresentaram dinâmicas distintas de perdas de massa: as folhas de eucalipto (FE) decompõem mais rápido que as de acácia (FA), já as raízes não apresentaram diferenças entre raízes de acácia (RA) e raízes de eucalipto (RE). A quantidade inicial de N não influenciou na decomposição do material e houve imobilização deste elemento durante o período. A relação C/N não foi eficiente como parâmetro de decomposição, pois o valor de C/N para FA foi o dobro de FE. A relação N/P apresentou uma evolução durante o experimento, tanto para folhas quanto para raízes e pode predizer características da comunidade microbiana, maior prevalência de bactérias ou fungos. A lignina demonstrou-se como o componente químico responsável pelo padrão de decomposição encontrado, pois após um ano não alterou sua concentração nas folhas. A transferência de N foi dirigida pela qualidade da folha dreno e não pela fonte, assim FA foi o tipo de folha que recebeu mais N das folhas em que foram pareadas, principalmente com FE. Esses resultados demonstram que embora o material do eucalipto seja considerado recalcitrante, após sucessivos anos de manejo desta espécie na área a comunidade microbiana do solo foi favorável a melhor decomposição deste material que o material da acácia, mesmo em segunda rotação desta cultura / The nitrogen-fixing species (N) are used with forest plantations to increase N. However when these species are inserted monoculture rushes to interference in the formation of litter, and thus the nutrient cycling of the system. The study was conducted in pure and mixed plantations of Eucalyptus grandis and Acacia mangium in the Experimental Station of Forest Sciences ESALQ-USP in Itatinga - SP. This work consists of two experiments using litterbags technique to assess the decomposition and were aimed at: a) evaluate the dynamics of decomposing leaves and fine roots of E. grandis and A. mangium plantations in different and what influence the chemical composition of plant material and soil nutrient cycling in the \"home advantage theory\", b) study the cycling of nutrients in plantations syndicated by determining the chemical composition and quality of material decaying plant c) estimate the gross and net transfer of nitrogen during decomposition of leaves of the mixture of the two species, in order to understand the ecological interactions in the consortium of eucalyptus and legumes. The decomposition of leaves and roots of both species showed distinct dynamics of mass loss: eucalyptus leaves (LE) decomposer faster than acacia (LA), since the roots did not differ among acacia roots (RA) and eucalyptus roots (RE). The initial amount of N had no influence on the decomposition of material there and immobilization element during this period. The C / N was not effective as a parameter of decomposition, because the value of C / N for AF is twice the FE. The N / P ratio had changed during the experiment, both for leaves and for roots and can predict characteristics of the microbial community, the greater prevalence of bacteria or fungi. The lignin was shown as the chemical component responsible for the pattern of decay found, because after one year did not alter its concentration in the leaves. The transfer of N was driven by the quality of the sheet drain and not the source, than LA was the type of leaf that received more N in the leaves that were paired primarily with LE. These results demonstrate that although the material is eucalyptus considered recalcitrant, after successive years of management of this species in the soil microbial community was in favor of better decomposition of this material as the material of the acacia, even in this second rotation crop

Sementes das plantas pertencentes à família Leguminosae são excelentes fontes de inibidores de proteases. O gênero Acacia é um dos membros mais importantes deste grupo. Neste trabalho, foram descritos novos inibidores de proteases das sementes de Acacia plumosa Lowe. A partir do extrato salino das sementes maduras, os inibidores foram purificados por cromatografia de exclusão molecular em coluna Superdex-75 (equilibrada e eluída com PBS) e cromatografia de troca iônica em coluna Mono-S, equilibrada e eluída com o tampão Acetato de Sódio 50 mM (pH 5.0) num gradiente linear de \'NA\'\'CL\' 0-0.5 M. Quatro frações (eluídas por volta de 0.1 8, 0.22, 0.33 e 0.37 M de \'NA\'\'CL\') apresentaram atividade anticoagulante e ação inibitória sobre serinoproteases, estas frações foram denominadas ApTIA, ApTIB, ApTIC e ApTID, respectivamente. Em condições nativas, a espectrometria de massas mostrou as massas moleculares de três deles (A, B e C): 19.709; 19.869 e 20.378 Dáltons, enquanto que em SDS-PAGE na presença de \'beta\'-mercaptoethanol, foram observadas duas cadeias para cada um dos inibidores. A análise dos primeiros 10 resíduos de aminoácidos da região N-Terminal das duas cadeias das formas A, B, C revelou identidade com inibidores do tipo Kunitz, e também mostrou dois resíduos diferentes na ApTIC, em relação as formas A e B. Estes dados levam a interpretação de que estes inibidores são diferentes isoformas encontradas nesta semente. O espectro de dicroísmo circular foram compatíveis com proteínas que majoritariamente apresentam elementos- &#946; e não-ordenados em sua estrutura, apresentando máximos positivos por volta de 230 nm e mínimos em 202 nm. Os três isoinibidores foram muito estáveis em pHs ácidos e alcalinos, e suas estruturas foram afetadas somente acima de 75oC. As constantes de associação (KA) e de dissociação(KD) determinadas por SPR (num sistema BIACORE) com enzimas proteolíticas indicaram que a afinidade destes inibidores por tripsina foi até 20 vezes maior que para quimotripsina (tripsina: KA2.57x109 M-1 e quimotripsina: KA 1.34x108M-1), e o complexo tripsina-inibidor mostrou maior estabilidade (tripsina: KD por volta de 0,5 nM e quimotripsina: 6 nM). Estes inibidores também apresentaram ação inibitória sobre o crescimento dos fungos Aspergillus niger, Thielaviopsis paradoxa, Colletotrichum sp P10 e Fusarium moniliforme, mostrando que provavelmente a inibição de suas serinoproteases possa ser um mecanismo de controle das suas proliferações. / Seeds of plants belonging to Leguminosae family are rich sources of protease inhibitors. The Acacia genus is one of the most important members of this group. In this work, novel protease inhibitors from Acacia plumose Lowe seeds have been described. From the saline extract of mature seeds, the inhibitors were purified by size exclusion chromatography on Superdex-75 column (equilibrated and eluted with PBS) and ionic exchange chromatography on Mono-S column, equilibrated and eluted with Sodium Acetate 50 mM (pH 5.0) in a linear gradient of NaCl 0-0.5M. Four fractions (eluted around 0.18, 0.22, 0.33 and 0.37 M of NaCl) presented anticoagulant activity and inhibitory action on serineprotease, these fractions were denoted ApTIA, ApTIB, ApTIC and ApTID, respectively. In native conditions, mass spectrometry showed the molecular weights of three of them (A, B and C): 19,709; 19,869 and 20,378 Daltons, while in SDS-PAGE in ?-mercaptoethanol presence, two chains for each inhibitor were observed. The N-terminal analysis of the first 10 amino acid residues of both chains of the isoforms A, B, and C revealed identity with Kunitz protease inhibitors and also showed two different residues in ApTIC, comparing with A and B isoforms. These data indicate that the inhibitors are different isoforms present in this seeds. The circular dichroism spectra were compatible with proteins that majority present unordered and beta-elements in these structures, presenting positive maxima around 230 nm and minima about 202 nm. The three isonhibitors were very stable at acids and alkalines pH, and their structures are only affected over 75ºC. The association (KA) and dissociation constants (KD) determined by SPR (BIACORE system) with proteolytic enzymes indicated that the affinity of these inhibitors for trypsin was up to 20 times bigger than for chymotrypsin (trypsin: KA 2.57x109 M-1 and chymotrypsin: KA 1.37x108 M-1), and the complex inhibitor-trypsin showed higher stability (trypsin: KD around 0,5 nM and chymotrypsin: 6 nM). These inhibitors also presented inhibitory action on the fungi growth of Aspergillus niger, Thielaviopsis paradoxa, Colletotrichum sp P10 e Fusarium moniliforme showing that probably the inhibition of their serineproteases can be a mechanism of control of their proliferation.